Editing Template:Abkhazia

{{Short description|Partially recognised state in the South Caucasus}}
{{For|the early medieval state|Kingdom of Abkhazia}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Abkhazia
| native_name            = {{unbulleted list
 | {{native name|ab|Аԥсны Аҳәынҭқарра|italic=no}}
 | {{resize|90%|{{nobold|{{transliteration|ab|Aṕsny Aħəynţķarra}}}}}}
 | {{native name|ru|Республика Абхазия|italic=no}}
 | {{resize|90%|{{nobold|{{transliteration|ru|Respublika Abkhaziya}}}}}}
}}
| common_name            = Abkhazia
| status                 = [[List of states with limited recognition|Partially recognised state]]
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = {{native phrase|ab|Аиааира|italics=off|nolink=on}}<br />{{transliteration|ab|[[Aiaaira]]}}<br />"Victory"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National anthem of Abkhazia – Aiaaira (Аиааира) (orchestral vocal version).ogg]]}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Abkhazia.svg
| flag_type              = [[Flag of Abkhazia|Flag]]
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Abkhazia.svg
| symbol_type            = [[Emblem of Abkhazia|Emblem]]
| image_map              = Abkhaziaorthographicprojection.svg
| map_caption            = Abkhazia (green) within [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (dark grey)
| capital                = [[Sukhumi]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|43|0|0|N|41|1|40|E|type:city}}
| largest_city           = capital
| official_languages     = {{hlist | [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]|[[Russian language|Russian]]<sup>a</sup>}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Useful information |url=https://mfaapsny.org/en/helpful-information/general_information/ |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=mfaapsny.org |language=en}}</ref>
| languages_type         = [[Spoken language]]s
| languages              = {{hlist | Abkhaz|Russian|[[Georgian language|Georgian]]|[[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]]|[[Svan language|Svan]]|[[Armenian language|Armenian]]}}
| demonym                = [[Abkhazians|{{hlist|style=white-space:nowrap; |Abkhaz|Abkhazian}}]]
| government_type        = Unitary [[presidential system|presidential republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of Abkhazia|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Badra Gunba]] (acting)
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of Abkhazia|Vice President]]
| leader_name2           = Badra Gunba
| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of Abkhazia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3           = [[Valeri Bganba]] (acting)
| legislature            = [[People's Assembly of Abkhazia|People's Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type       = 
| established_event1     = [[Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia]]
| established_date1      = 31 March 1921
| established_event2     = [[Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]]
| established_date2      = 19 February 1931
| established_event3     = Abkhazian declaration of sovereignty
| established_date3      = 25 August 1990
| established_event4     = Abkhazian declaration of independence
| established_date4      = 23 July 1992
| established_event5     = Act of state independence
| established_date5      = 12 October 1999
| area_km2               = 8,664.59<ref name=EB>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Dale H. |editor-last=Hoiberg |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |title=Abkhazia |edition=15th |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. |volume=I: A-ak Bayes |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=978-1-59339-837-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/33 33] |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/33}}</ref>
| area_sq_mi             = 3,344 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| area_rank              = 
| area_magnitude         = 
| population_census      = 240,705
| population_census_year = 2011
| population_estimate    = 244,236<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ugsra.org/ofitsialnaya-statistika.php?ELEMENT_ID=600 |title=Государственный комитет Республики Абхазия по статистике |website=ugsra.org |access-date=27 October 2023 |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329170012/https://ugsra.org/ofitsialnaya-statistika.php?ELEMENT_ID=600 }}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 180th
| population_density_km2 = 28.2
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_density_rank = 160th
| GDP_nominal            = $270 million<ref>{{citation |title=Moscow Says Abkhazia, S. Ossetia Shall be Less Dependent on Russia |date=10 March 2022 |url=https://civil.ge/archives/478378/}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2021
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $1,100
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = 
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 
| Gini_year              = 
| Gini_change            = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini                   = <!--number only-->
| Gini_ref               = 
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI_year               = 
| HDI_change             = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI                    = <!--number only-->
| HDI_ref                = 
| HDI_rank               = 
| currency               = {{unbulleted list |[[Abkhazian apsar]] |[[Russian ruble]]<sup>c</sup>}}
| currency_code          = RUB
| time_zone              = MSK
| utc_offset             = +3
| time_zone_DST          = 
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Russia|+7]] 840{{\}}940 (formerly, [[Telephone numbers in Abkhazia|+995 44]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Abkhazia remains available by Georgian phone codes |url=http://www.today.az/print/news/georgia/58953.html |date=6 January 2010 |access-date=20 January 2010 |publisher=today.az |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712005819/http://www.today.az/print/news/georgia/58953.html |archive-date=12 July 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wtng.info/wtng-995-ge.html |title= Georgia +995 |date=2 June 2011 |work=World Telephone Numbering Guide |access-date=23 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220025759/http://www.wtng.info/wtng-995-ge.html |archive-date=20 December 2013 }}</ref>
| iso3166code            = 
| today                  = 
}}

'''Abkhazia''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{langx|ab|Аԥсны|Apsny}}, {{IPA|ab|apʰsˈnɨ|label=IPA}}|{{langx|ru|Абха́зия|Abkhaziya}}, {{IPA|ru|ɐˈpxazʲɪjə|IPA}}|{{langx|ka|აფხაზეთი|Apkhazeti}}, {{IPA|ka|ˈapʰχazetʰi|IPA}}|{{langx|xmf|აბჟუა|Abzhua}}, or {{lang|xmf|სააფხაზო}} {{transliteration|xmf|Saapkhazo}}}}}}{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=Abkhazia pronunciation.mp3|æ|b|ˈ|k|ɑː|z|i|ə}} {{respell|ab|KAH|zee|ə}} or {{IPAc-en|audio=Abkhazia alternate pronunciation.mp3|æ|b|ˈ|k|eɪ|z|i|ə}} {{respell|ab|KAY|zee|ə}}<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/abkhazia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325154956/https://www.lexico.com/definition/abkhazia |archive-date=25 March 2020 |title=Abkhazia {{!}} Meaning of Abkhazia by Lexico |website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English |language=en |access-date=25 March 2020}}</ref>}} officially the '''Republic of Abkhazia''',{{efn|{{bulleted list|{{langx|ab|Аԥсны Аҳәынҭқарра|Apsny Ahwyntqarra}}|{{langx|ru|Республика Абхазия|Respublika Abkhaziya}}}}}} is a [[List of states with limited recognition|partially recognised state]] in the [[South Caucasus]], on the eastern coast of the [[Black Sea]], at the intersection of [[Eastern Europe]] and [[West Asia]]. It covers {{convert|8665|sqkm|sqmi}} and has a population of around 245,000. Its capital and largest city is [[Sukhumi]].

The political status of Abkhazia is a central issue of the [[Abkhazia conflict]] and [[Georgia–Russia relations]]. Abkhazia has been [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|recognised as an independent state]] by [[Russia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Nauru]], and [[Syria]]; however, the [[Government of Georgia (country)|Georgian government]] and nearly all [[United Nations]] member states consider Abkhazia [[Sovereign state|sovereign territory]] of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref name="Faultlines">Olga Oliker, Thomas S. Szayna. Faultlines of Conflict in Central Asia and the South Caucasus: Implications for the U.S. Army. Rand Corporation, 2003, {{ISBN|978-0-8330-3260-7}}.</ref><ref name="Clogg">{{cite web |last=Clogg |first=Rachel |date=January 2001 |title=Abkhazia: ten years on |url=http://www.c-r.org/resources/occasional-papers/abkhazia-ten-years-on.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302113248/http://www.c-r.org/resources/occasional-papers/abkhazia-ten-years-on.php |archive-date=2 March 2008 |access-date=31 May 2016 |publisher=Conciliation Resources}}</ref><ref name="Karagiannis">Emmanuel Karagiannis. Energy and Security in the Caucasus. Routledge, 2002. {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1481-0}}.</ref><ref name="Olympics">{{Cite web |last=Parfitt |first=Tom |date=6 August 2007 |title=Georgia up in arms over Olympic cash |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/aug/07/russia.sport |access-date=25 February 2023 |website=The Guardian |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104213010/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/aug/07/russia.sport |url-status=live }}</ref> Lacking effective control over the Abkhazian territory, Georgia maintains an Abkhaz [[Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia|government-in-exile]].

The region [[Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|had autonomy]] within [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Georgia]] at the time when the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union began to disintegrate]] in the late 1980s. Simmering ethnic tensions between the [[Abkhazians|Abkhaz]]—the region's [[Titular nation|titular ethnicity]]—and [[Georgians]]—the largest single ethnic group at that time—culminated in the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|1992–1993 War in Abkhazia]], which resulted in Georgia's loss of control over most of Abkhazia and the [[Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia|ethnic cleansing of Georgians from Abkhazia]]. Despite a [[Agreement on a Cease-fire and Separation of Forces|1994 ceasefire agreement]] and years of negotiations, the dispute remains unresolved. The long-term presence of a [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|United Nations Observer Mission]] and a Russian-led [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] peacekeeping force failed to prevent the flare-up of violence on several occasions. In August 2008, Abkhaz and Russian forces fought [[Russo-Georgian War|a war]] against Georgian forces, which led to the formal recognition of Abkhazia by Russia, the annulment of the 1994 ceasefire agreement and the termination of the UN mission. On 23 October 2008, the [[Parliament of Georgia]] declared Abkhazia a [[Russian-occupied territories in Georgia|Russian-occupied territory]], a position shared by most United Nations member states.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Georgia/Russia, Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in South Ossetia {{!}} How does law protect in war? - Online casebook |url=https://casebook.icrc.org/case-study/georgiarussia-independent-international-fact-finding-mission-conflict-south-ossetia |access-date=5 March 2024 |website=casebook.icrc.org |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004173607/https://casebook.icrc.org/case-study/georgiarussia-independent-international-fact-finding-mission-conflict-south-ossetia |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Toponymy==
The Russian name {{lang|ru|Абхазия}} (''{{transliteration|ru|Abkhaziya}}'') is adapted from the [[Georgian language|Georgian]] {{lang|ka|აფხაზეთი}} (''{{transliteration|ka|Apkhazeti}}''). Abkhazia's name in English 
({{IPAc-en|audio=Abkhazia pronunciation.mp3|æ|b|ˈ|k|ɑː|z|i|ə}}<ref name=":3" /> {{respell|ab|KAH|zee|ə}} or {{IPAc-en|audio=Abkhazia alternate pronunciation.mp3|æ|b|ˈ|k|eɪ|z|i|ə}} {{respell|ab|KAY|zee|ə}}<ref>
{{cite book |last=Wells |first=John C. |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisher=Longman |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0 |edition=3rd}}</ref>) 

The Abkhaz name {{lang|ab-Latn|Apsny}} ({{langx|ab|Аԥсны}}, {{IPA|ab|apʰsˈnɨ|label=IPA}}) is etymologised as 'a land of the soul';<ref>{{cite web |url=http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/ContBorders/eng/ch0103.htm |title=Contested Borders in the Caucasus: Chapter I (3/4) |work=vub.ac.be |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127185336/http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/ContBorders/eng/ch0103.htm |archive-date=27 November 2012 }}</ref> however, the literal meaning is 'a country of mortals'.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ozgan |first=Konstantin |author-link=Konstantin Ozgan |editor=Ole Høiris, Sefa Martin Yürükel |title=Contrasts and Solutions in the Caucasus |chapter-url=http://www.abkhazalliance.com/ozganp.html |year=1998 |publisher=Aarhus University Press |isbn=978-87-7288-708-1 |page=184 |chapter=Abkhazia: Problems and the Paths to their Resolution |quote=[...] ''Apsny'', which when translated, means 'Land of the Abkhazians [Mortals]' [...] See Chirikba (1991) for the etymology deriving the Abkhazian native [[ethnonym]] from the root 'die' in the sense of 'mortal being'. The popular belief that the toponym is etymologisable as 'Land of the Soul' is demonstrated by Chirikba to be no longer tenable. |access-date=27 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227150801/http://www.abkhazalliance.com/ozganp.html |archive-date=27 February 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> It possibly first appeared in the seventh century in an Armenian text, perhaps referring to the ancient [[Apsilae|Apsilians]].<ref name="Hewitt2013">{{cite book |last=Hewitt |first=George B. |title=Discordant Neighbours: A Reassessment of the Georgian-Abkhazian and Georgian-South Ossetian Conflicts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eshhfkTqkXkC&pg=PA9 |year=2013 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-24893-9 |page=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161117204359/https://books.google.com/books?id=eshhfkTqkXkC&pg=PA9 |archive-date=17 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In early Muslim sources, the term ''Abkhazia'' was generally used to mean the territory of Georgia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/div/m.lordkiPaniZe_abkh.html |author=Prof. Lordkipanidze M. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225231434/http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/div/m.lordkiPaniZe_abkh.html |title=The Abkhazians and Abkhazia |archive-date=25 February 2021 }}</ref><ref>For all practical purposes the term ''Abkhdz'' or ''Afkhdz'', in early Muslim sources covers Georgia and Georgians. [[Vasily Bartold|Barthold, Wasil]] & [[Vladimir Minorsky|Minorsky, Vladimir]], "Abkhaz", in ''[[The Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', Vol. 1, 1960.</ref>

Presumably considered as a successor state of Lazica ({{lang|ka-Latn|Egrisi}} in Georgian sources), this new polity continued to be referred to as Egrisi in some Byzantine era Georgian and Armenian chronicles (e.g. ''The Vitae of the Georgian Kings'' by [[Leonti Mroveli]] and ''The History of Armenia'' by [[Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lortkipanidze |first1=Mariam |last2=Otkhmezuri |first2=Giorgi |title=Abkhazia's status as part of Georgia: historical perspective |journal=Central Asia and the Caucasus |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/abkhazia-s-status-as-part-of-georgia-historical-perspective |year=2010 |volume=4 |issue=1–2 |page=175 }}</ref>

The Constitution of Abkhazia says the names of the "Republic of Abkhazia" and "Apsny" are equivalent and interchangable.<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |url=http://abkhazworld.com/aw/reports-and-key-texts/607-constitution-of-the-republic-of-abkhazia-apsny |title=Constitution of the Republic of Abkhazia (Apsny) |date=22 October 2008 |publisher=Abkhazworld.com |access-date=31 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624045315/http://abkhazworld.com/aw/reports-and-key-texts/607-constitution-of-the-republic-of-abkhazia-apsny |archive-date=24 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of Abkhazia - Wikisource, the free online library |url=https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Abkhazia |access-date=2024-12-12 |website=en.wikisource.org |language=en}}</ref>

Before the 20th century, the region was sometimes referred to in English language sources as ''Abhasia''.<ref>''The British and Foreign Review: Or, European Quarterly''. 1838, p. 422.;</ref><ref>Edmund Ollier. ''Cassell's illustrated history of the Russo-Turkish''. 1885</ref>

==History==
{{main|History of Abkhazia}}

===Early history===
Between the 9th and 6th centuries BC, the territory of modern Abkhazia was part of the ancient [[Kingdom of Colchis]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC – AD 562 |first=David |last=Braund |place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon |year=1994 |page=359}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War |first=Stuart J |last=Kaufman |page=91}}.</ref> Around the 6th century&nbsp;BC, the Greeks established trade colonies along the [[Black Sea]] coast of present-day Abkhazia, in particular at [[Pitsunda|Pitiunt]] and [[Sukhumi|Dioscurias]].<ref>{{Citation |title=The Making of the Georgian Nation |first=Ronald |last=Grigor |publisher=SUNY |pages=3–13}}.</ref>

[[Classics|Classical authors]] described various peoples living in the region and the great multitude of languages they spoke.<ref>Graham Smith, Edward A. Allworth, Vivien A. Law et al., pages 56–58; ''Abkhaz'' by [[W. Barthold]] [[V. Minorsky]] in the [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]].</ref> [[Arrian]], [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] and [[Strabo]] have given accounts of the [[Abasgoi]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Olson |first1=James S |title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires |last2=Pappas |first2=Lee Brigance |last3=Pappas |first3=Nicholas C. J. |publisher=Greenwood |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-313-27497-8 |page=6}}</ref> and [[Mushki#Moschoi|Moschoi]]<ref>Strabo, in agreement with [[Stephan of Byzantium]] quoting [[Hellanicus of Lesbos|Hellanicus]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}</ref> peoples somewhere in modern Abkhazia on the eastern shore of the Black Sea. This region was subsequently absorbed in 63&nbsp;BC into the [[Lazica|Kingdom of Lazica]].<ref>{{Citation |first=David |last=Braund |title=Georgia in Antiquity: A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550&nbsp;BC – AD 562 |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=US |date=8 September 1994 |page=27}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Gregory |first=Timothy E |title=A History of Byzantium |year=2005 |page=78 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-631-23512-5}}.</ref>

According to an Eastern tradition, [[Simon the Zealot]] died in Abkhazia during a missionary trip and was buried in [[Nicopsis]]; his mortal remains were later transferred to [[New Athos|Anacopia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McDowell |first1=Sean |title=The Fate of the Apostles: Examining the Martyrdom Accounts of the Closest Followers of Jesus |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-03189-5 |pages=24, 247}}</ref>

=== Within the Roman / Byzantine Empire ===
The [[Roman Empire]] conquered [[Lazica]] in the 1st century AD; however, the Roman presence was confined to the ports.<ref>{{cite book |title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia |last=Rayfield |first=Donald |year=2013 |publisher=ReaktionBooks |isbn=978-1-78023-070-2 |page=28}}</ref> According to [[Arrian]], the [[Abasgoi]] and [[Apsilae]] peoples were nominal Roman subjects, and there was a small Roman outpost in [[Dioscurias]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=King |first1=Charles |author1-link=Charles King (professor of international affairs) |title=The Black Sea. A history. |date=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-924161-3 |chapter=The Expedition of Flavius Arrianus}}</ref> Abasgoi likely served in the Roman army in ''[[Auxilia#Alae|Ala]] Prima Abasgorum'' which was stationed in [[Egypt]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rossi |first1=Corinna |title=Egyptian cubits and Late Roman architecture: the design of the forts of the Kharga Oasis (Egypt) |journal=ISAW Papers |date=2019 |volume=16 |url=https://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/isaw-papers/16/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126081641/https://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/isaw-papers/16/ |url-status=live }}</ref> After the 4th century Lazica regained a measure of independence, but remained within the [[Byzantine Empire]]'s sphere of influence.<ref>{{cite book |title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia |last=Rayfield |first=Donald |year=2013 |publisher=ReaktionBooks |isbn=978-1-78023-070-2 |page=43}}</ref> [[Anacopia]] was the principality's capital. The country was mostly Christian, with the archbishop's seat in [[Pityus]].<ref>''Annuario Pontificio 2013'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2013, {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), p. 975</ref> Stratophilus, the Metropolitan of Pityus, participated in the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/syriac_misc.htm |title=B.H.Cowper, Syriac Miscellanies (1861) |first=B. Harris |last=COWPER |website=www.tertullian.org |access-date=30 May 2021 |archive-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111092239/https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/syriac_misc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

Around the middle of the 6th century AD, the Byzantines and the neighbouring [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid Persia]] fought for supremacy over Abkhazia, a conflict known as the [[Lazic War]]. During the war the [[Abasgoi|Abasgians]] revolted against the Byzantine Empire and requested Sasanian assistance; the revolt was suppressed by General [[Bessas (magister militum)|Bessas]].{{sfn|Odisheli|2018|pages=1–2}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Leppin |first1=Hartmut |editor1-last=Meier |editor1-first=Mischa |editor2-last=Montinaro |editor2-first=Federico |title=A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea |date=2021 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-49877-8 |chapter=The Eastern Roman Empire and Its Neighbours in the "Age of Justinian"}}</ref>{{sfn|Odisheli|2018|pages=1–2}}

An Arab incursion into Abasgia, led by [[Marwan II]], was repelled by [[Leon I of Abkhazia|Prince Leon I]] jointly with his Lazic and [[Principality of Iberia|Iberian]] allies in 736. Leon I then married [[Mirian of Kakheti|Mirian]]'s daughter and a successor, [[Leon II of Abkhazia|King Leon II]] exploited this dynastic union to acquire [[Lazica]] in the 770s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Nation-building in the post-Soviet borderlands |last=Smith |first=Graham |author2=Vivien Law |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-59968-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nationbuildingin0000unse/page/56 56] |url=https://archive.org/details/nationbuildingin0000unse/page/56}}</ref>

[[File:Caucasus 1124 AC en alt.svg|thumb|The Kingdom of Abkhazia was united through dynastic succession with the newly formed [[Kingdom of Georgia]] in 1008 when Bagrat II of Abkhazia became [[Bagrat III of Georgia]].]]
The successful defence against the Arab Caliphate, and new territorial gains in the east gave the Abasgian princes enough power to claim more autonomy from the Byzantine Empire. Circa 778, Prince Leon II, with the help of the [[Khazars]], declared independence from the Byzantine Empire and transferred his residence to [[Kutaisi]]. During this period the Georgian language replaced [[Greek language|Greek]] as the language of literacy and culture.<ref>Alexei Zverev, ''Ethnic Conflicts in the Caucasus''; Graham Smith, Edward A Allworth, Vivien A Law et al., pages 56–58; ''Abkhaz'' by W. Barthold [V. Minorsky] in the [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]; ''The Georgian-Abkhaz State'' (summary), by George Anchabadze, in: Paul Garb, Arda Inal-Ipa, Paata Zakareishvili, editors, Aspects of the Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict: Cultural Continuity in the Context of Statebuilding, Volume 5, 26–28 August 2000.</ref>

===Within the Kingdom of Georgia===

The [[Kingdom of Abkhazia]] flourished between 850 and 950 AD, which ended by unification of Abkhazia and eastern Georgian states under a single [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgian monarchy]] ruled by [[Bagrat III of Georgia|King Bagrat III]] at the end of the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century.<ref>{{cite book |title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia |last=Rayfield |first=Donald |year=2013 |publisher=ReaktionBooks |isbn=978-1-78023-070-2 |pages=63–72}}</ref>

During the reign of [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar]], Georgian chronicles mention [[Otagho II Sharvashidze|Otagho]] as the [[Eristavi]] of Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Амичба |first1=Георгий |title=Сообщения средневековых грузинских письменных источников об Абхазии |date=1986 |publisher=Алашара |language=ru |chapter=История и восхваление венценосцев}}</ref> He was one of the first representatives of the [[House of Sharvashidze|House of Shervashidze]] (also known as Chachba) which went on to rule Abkhazia until the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book| title = Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia | first = Donald | last = Rayfield | publisher = Reaktion Books Ltd. | location = London, UK | year = 2012| isbn = 978-1-78023-030-6|page=441}}</ref>

In the 1240s, [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] divided Georgia into eight military-administrative sectors ([[Tumen (unit)|tümens]]). The territory of contemporary Abkhazia formed part of the tümen administered by [[Tsotne Dadiani]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia |last=Rayfield |first=Donald |year=2013 |publisher=ReaktionBooks |isbn=978-1-78023-070-2 |page=127}}</ref>

=== Ottoman domination ===
In the 16th century, after the break-up of the Georgian Kingdom into small kingdoms and principalities, the [[Principality of Abkhazia]] (nominally a vassal of the [[Kingdom of Imereti]]) emerged, ruled by the [[House of Sharvashidze|Shervashidze dynasty]].<ref name="EB" /> In 1453, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] first attacked [[Sukhumi]], and in the 1570s, they had a garrison there. Throughout the 17th century, they continued to launch attacks, leading to the imposition of tribute on Abkhazia. 

Ottoman influence grew significantly in the 18th century with the construction of a fort in Sukhumi, accompanied by a conversion of the rulers of Abkhazia and many other Abkhaz to [[Islam]]. Nonetheless, conflicts between the Abkhaz and Turks persisted.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Бгажба |first1=О. Х. |last2=Лакоба |first2=С. З. |title=История Абхазии с древнейших времен до наших дней |date=2007 |publisher=Алашарбага |language=ru |chapter=§9. Абхазское княжество и Турция (XV–XVIII ВВ.)}}</ref> The spread of Islam in Abkhazia was first evidenced by the Ottoman traveler [[Evliya Çelebi]] in 1641. Despite this, the [[Islamization]] was more evident in the higher levels of society rather than the general population.<ref name="rel">{{cite book |last=Hewitt|first=Brian George|title=The Abkhazians: A Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-YUfAgAAQBAJ|date=2013 |publisher=Springer|isbn=9781136802058|page=208|quote=The first evidence of Abkhazian Muslims was given in the 1640s by the Turkish historian Evliya Qelebi, whose mother was an Abkhazian. On his travels he recorded that the Abkhazians had a mosque and that among them were "many Muslims." This Muslim population, according to Qelebi, was hostile to Christians, in spite of not recognising the Quran or being of any religious denomination. Other sources would seem to indicate, however, that although the Christian presence was on the wane, and the dissemination of Islam increasing, evidence of traditional Islam was more apparent among the higher levels of society by the end of the 18th century than among the population at large. The Abkhaz rulers were not in a position to decline Islam, a fact witnessed bythe forced conversion of Shervashidze-Chachba, Abkhazia's ruling prince, to Islam in 1733, following the destruction by the Turks of Elyr, a pilgrimage-site of particular religious significance to the Abkhaz near Ochamchira.}}</ref><ref name="apsnyteka.">{{Cite web |date=1953-11-23|url=http://apsnyteka.org/1556-lakoba_s_dvuglavy_oriol_i_traditsionnaja_abkhazia.html |website= apsnyteka.org|language=ru |title=Станислав Лакоба. Двуглавый орел и традиционная Абхазия }}</ref> In his work, Çelebi also wrote that the principal tribe of Abkhazian principality, Chách, spoke [[Mingrelian language]], a subset of [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] (Georgian) languages.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Paul|first1=Everill|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339412320|title=Travellers' Tales of Mingrelia and of the ancient fortress of Nokalakevi|journal=Ancient West & East|volume=18|date=2019|doi=10.2143/AWE.18.0.3287214|page=201|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Çelebi|first1=Evliya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-bLyDwAAQBAJ|title=Narrative of Travels in Europe, Asia and Africa in the Seventeenth Century|volume=2|date=2020 |publisher=Outlook Verlag|isbn=9783752350876|page=56|language=en}}</ref>

Abkhazia sought protection from the [[Russian Empire]] in 1801 but was declared "an autonomous [[principality]]" by the Russians in 1810.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_18802-544-2-30.pdf |last1=Beradze |first1=T. |last2=Topuria |first2=K. |last3=Khorava |first3=B. |year=2009 |title=A Historical-Geographical Review of Modern Abkhazia in:Causes of War-Prospects for Peace. Proceedings of the Holy Synod of the Georgian Orthodox Church and the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung scientific conference on the theme: Causes of War – Prospects for Peace (2008), 2–3 December: CGS ltd |pages=10–12 |website=www.kas.de |access-date=19 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305191659/http://www.kas.de/wf/doc/kas_18802-544-2-30.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://rustaveli.tripod.com/history.html |title=History |date=2007 |access-date=19 September 2015 |website=Georgia: Past, Present and Future |last=Mikaberidze |first=A. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016164333/http://rustaveli.tripod.com/history.html |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia then annexed Abkhazia in 1864, and Abkhaz resistance was quashed as the Russians deported Muslim Abkhaz to Ottoman territories.<ref name="EB" /><ref name="BBC">{{cite news |date=22 November 2011 |title=BBC News – Regions and territories: Abkhazia |work=BBC News |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] |location=London |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3261059.stm |url-status=live |access-date=19 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303174523/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3261059.stm |archive-date=3 March 2012}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

===Within Russia===
[[File:Abkhazia & Samurzakan.jpg|thumb|left|The borders of the [[Sukhumi District (Russian Empire)|Sukhumi District]] of the [[Kutaisi Governorate]] in 1899 when Abkhazia was part of the [[Russian Empire]].]]
In the beginning of the 19th century, while the Russians and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] were vying for control of the region, the rulers of Abkhazia shifted back and forth across the religious divide.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hewitt |first1=George |title=The Abkhazians. A Handbook |date=1998 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-21975-8 |pages=67–77}}</ref> The first attempt to enter into relations with Russia was made by [[Kelesh Ahmed-Bey Sharvashidze|Prince Kelesh-Bey]] in 1803, shortly after the incorporation of eastern Georgia into the expanding [[Russian Empire|Tsarist empire]] in 1801. However, pro-Ottoman sympathy in Abkhazia prevailed for a short time after Kelesh-Bey was assassinated by his son, [[Aslan-Bey Sharvashidze|Aslan-Bey]], in 1801.<ref>Mikaberidze, Alexander, "Historical Dictionary of Georgia", Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, p.84</ref> On 2 July 1810, [[Russian Naval Infantry|Russian Marines]] [[Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812)|stormed Sukhum-Kale]] and had Aslan-Bey replaced with his rival and brother, [[Sefer Ali-Bey Sharvashidze|Sefer Ali-Bey]], who had converted to Christianity and assumed the name of George. Abkhazia joined the Russian Empire as an autonomous principality, in 1810.<ref name=EB/> However, Sefer-bey's rule was limited and many mountain regions were as independent as before. Sefer-bey ruled from 1810 to 1821.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hewitt |first1=George |title=The Abkhazians. A Handbook |date=1998 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-21975-8 |page=78}}</ref> The next [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)|Russo-Turkish war]] (1828–1829) strongly enhanced the Russian positions, leading to a further split in the Abkhaz elite, mainly along religious divisions. During the [[Crimean War]] (1853–1856), Russian forces had to evacuate Abkhazia and Prince [[Mikhail, Prince of Abkhazia|Hamud-Bey Sharvashidze-Chachba]] (Mikhail), who ruled from 1822 to 1864, seemingly switched to the Ottomans.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hewitt |first1=George |title=The Abkhazians. A Handbook |date=1998 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-21975-8 |page=81}}</ref>

Later on, the Russian presence strengthened and the [[Russo-Circassian War|highlanders of Western Caucasia were finally subjugated]] by Russia in 1864. The autonomy of Abkhazia, which had functioned as a pro-Russian "buffer zone" in this troublesome region, was no longer needed by the Tsarist government and the rule of the Sharvashidze came to an end; in November 1864, Prince Mikhail (Hamud-Bey) was forced to renounce his rights and resettle in [[Voronezh|Voronezh, Russia]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hewitt |first1=George |title=The Abkhazians. A Handbook |date=1998 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-21975-8 |pages=81–82}}</ref> Later that same year, Abkhazia was incorporated into the [[Russian Empire]] as a special military province of Sukhum-Kale which was transformed, in 1883, into an ''[[okrug]]'' as part of the [[Kutaisi Governorate]]. Large numbers of Muslim Abkhazians, said to have constituted as much as 40% of the Abkhazian population, emigrated to the [[Ottoman Empire]] between 1864 and 1878 together with other Muslim populations of the Caucasus, a process known as ''[[Circassian genocide|Muhajirism]]''.<ref name="EB" />

[[File:Abkhaz and Georgian generals (A).jpg|thumb|Abkhaz and Georgian generals in the [[Imperial Russian Army]], 19th century]]
Large areas of the region were left uninhabited and many [[Armenians]], Georgians, Russians and others subsequently migrated to Abkhazia, resettling much of the vacated territory.<ref>{{cite book |title=E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936 |last=Houtsma |first=M. Th. |author2=E. van Donzel |year=1993 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09796-4 |page=71 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEl6N2tQeawC&q=Abkhazia+history+19th+century&pg=PA70 |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=18 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218082348/https://books.google.com/books?id=GEl6N2tQeawC&q=Abkhazia+history+19th+century&pg=PA70 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some Georgian historians assert that Georgian tribes ([[Svans]] and [[Mingrelians]]) had populated Abkhazia since the time of the [[Colchis|Colchis kingdom]].<ref name="Lortkipanidze">Lortkipanidze M., ''The Abkhazians and Abkhazia'', Tbilisi 1990.</ref> By official decision of the Russian authorities, the residents of Abkhazia and [[Samurzakano]] had to study and pray in Russian. After the mass deportation of 1878, Abkhazians were left in the minority, officially branded "guilty people", and had no leader capable of mounting serious opposition to [[Russification]].<ref name="Tsarism">{{cite web |url=http://eng.expertclub.ge/portal/cnid__5160/alias__Expertclub/lang__en/tabid__2546/default.aspx |title=Some of the issues of Russian imperial language policy in Abkhazia and its results (part II) |publisher=Experts' Club |date=28 July 2010 |access-date=14 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221182737/http://eng.expertclub.ge/portal/cnid__5160/alias__Expertclub/lang__en/tabid__2546/default.aspx |archive-date=21 February 2014 }}</ref>

On 17 March 1898, the synodal department of the Russian Orthodox Church of Georgia-Imereti, by Order 2771, again prohibited teaching and the conduct of religious services in Georgian. Mass protests by the Georgian population of Abkhazia and Samurzakano followed, news of which reached the Russian emperor. On 3 September 1898 the [[Most Holy Synod|Holy Synod]] issued Order 4880, which decreed that those parishes where the congregation was Mingrelian (i.e. Georgian), conduct both church services and church education in Georgian, while Abkhazian parishes use [[Old Church Slavonic|old Slavic]]. In the Sukhumi district, this order was carried out in only three of 42 parishes.<ref name="Tsarism"/> [[Tedo Sakhokia]] demanded the Russian authorities introduce Abkhazian and Georgian languages in church services and education. The official response was a criminal case brought against Tedo Sakhokia and leaders of his "Georgian Party" active in Abkhazia.<ref name="Tsarism"/>

===Within Georgian Democratic Republic===
Following the [[October Revolution]] in Russia, the [[Transcaucasian Commissariat]] was set up in Southern Caucasus, which gradually took steps towards the independence.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Historical-Geographic Review of Modern Abkhazia|publisher=[[Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung]]|editor-last=Beradze |editor-first=T. |editor-last2=Topuria |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Khorava |editor-first3=B.|url=https://www.kas.de/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=9a93a8fa-c31b-f8de-82f4-b0442b45cacb&groupId=252038|chapter=Political-Legal Status of Abkhazia in 1917-1937|first=Jemal|last=Gamakharia|page=29}}</ref> Transcaucasia declared its independence from Russia on 9 April 1918 as a [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic|federative republic]]. On 8 May 1918, the Bolsheviks seized power in Abkhazia and disbanded the local Abkhaz People's Council. It requested aid from the Transcausian authorities, which dispatched the Georgian People's Guard and [[Abkhazia operation|defeated the rebels]] on 17 May.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones|first=Stephen|title=The Making of Modern Georgia, 1918-2012: The First Georgian Republic and its Successors |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XMQTAwAAQBAJ |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-81593-8|page=208}}</ref>

On 26 May 1918, Georgia declared independence from the Transcaucasian Federation, which soon dissolved. On 8 June 1918, the Abkhaz People's Council signed a treaty with the Georgian National Council, which confirmed Abkhazia's status as an autonomy within the Georgian Democratic Republic. Georgian army defeated another Bolshevik rebellion in the region. It remained part of Georgia after another Bolshevik revolt and a Turkish expedition were defeated in 1918.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} Russian general and a leader of [[White movement]] [[Anton Denikin]] laid claims on Abkhazia and captured [[Gagra]], but Georgians counter-attacked in April 1919 and retook the city.<ref name="nik"/><ref>{{cite news |date=4 May 1919|title=Georgia troops seize Gagra, Ardagan|via=[[Civil Georgia]]|newspaper=The Georgian Messenger|url=https://civil.ge/archives/304683|access-date=16 January 2024}}</ref> Denikin's [[Volunteer Army]] was eventually defeated by the [[Red Army]], and [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Bolshevik Russia]] signed an agreement with Georgia in May 1920, recognizing Abkhazia as a part of Georgia.<ref name="nik">{{cite book |last=Samkharadze|first=Nikoloz|title=Georgian State Border – Past and Present|url=http://css.ge/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/nika_border_eng.pdf|date=2012 |publisher=Center for Social Studies|isbn=978-1-317-81593-8|pages=6–7}}</ref>

In 1919, a first [[1919 Abkhazian People's Council election|election]] was held to the Abkhaz People's Council. The Council favored being an autonomous region within Georgia, and it lasted until [[Red Army invasion of Georgia]] in February 1921.<ref name=MG>Mariam Goshadze (2008) ''Inventing the self: Instrumentalisation of history in Abkhazian-Georgian conflict'', p.51</ref>

===Within the Soviet Union===
{{main|Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia|Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic}}
[[File:Soviet Caucasus map.svg|left|thumb|Map of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Caucasus (1957–91) showing the [[Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Abkhaz ASSR]] within the [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Georgian SSR]].]]
In 1921, the Bolshevik Red Army [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|invaded Georgia]] and ended its short-lived independence. Abkhazia was made a socialist Soviet republic ([[Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia|SSR Abkhazia]]) with the ambiguous status of a "''treaty republic"'' associated with the [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Georgian SSR]].<ref name=EB/><ref name=constitution>{{cite web |url=http://abkhazia.narod.ru/constitution1.htm |date=1 April 1925 |script-title=ru:Из конституции Социалистической Советской Республики Абхазии |trans-title=From the Constitution of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Abkhazia |language=ru |at=Article 3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021114093915/http://abkhazia.narod.ru/constitution1.htm |archive-date=14 November 2002}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Neproshin |first=A. Ju. |trans-title=Abkhazia. Problems of international recognition |url=http://www.abkhaziya.org/server-articles/article-c165f1f9be6ab370d75a0b3d2af71a59.html |script-title=ru:Абхазия. Проблемы международного признания |publisher=[[MGIMO]] |date=16–17 May 2006 |language=ru |access-date=2 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080903112328/http://www.abkhaziya.org/server-articles/article-c165f1f9be6ab370d75a0b3d2af71a59.html |archive-date=3 September 2008 |url-status=live}}.</ref> In 1931, [[Joseph Stalin]] made it an autonomous republic ([[Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Abkhaz ASSR]]) within the Georgian SSR.<ref name="BBC"/> Despite its nominal autonomy, it was subjected to strong direct rule from central Soviet authorities. The publishing of materials in Abkhazian dwindled and was eventually stopped altogether; Abkhaz schools were closed in 1945–1946, requiring Abkhaz children to study in the Georgian language.<ref>{{cite book |title=Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States |year=1999 |publisher=Europa Publications Limited |location=London |isbn=978-1-85743-058-5 |page=363}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Abkhazians: a handbook |last=Hewitt |first=George |year=1999 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-21975-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/abkhazianshandbo00geor/page/96 96] |url=https://archive.org/details/abkhazianshandbo00geor/page/96}}</ref><ref name=jrl/><ref>{{Citation | first = George | last = Hewitt | title = Abkhaz – A Comprehensive Self-Tutor | page = 17}}.</ref> This was part of the wider Soviet educational reform launched in all [[Soviet Socialist Republic|SSRs]] in 1938.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Functioning of the Abkhazian Language in Education|url=https://www.spekali.tsu.ge/index.php/en/article/viewArticle/2/20|journal=Spekali |date=October 2010 |language=en |last1=Gvantseladze |first1=Teimuraz }}</ref> The teaching of Abkhaz language was preserved in the new reorganized Abkhaz schools as a mandatory subject by the decision of the [[Communist Party of Georgia (Soviet Union)|Georgian Communist Party]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chaava|first1=Sophia|last2=Gvantseladze|first2=Teimuraz|title=Abkhaz language in the past, present and...|url=https://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/348740/1/Abkhazian_language_In_Past_Present_And_eng.pdf |date=2021|publisher=Tbilisi|isbn=978-9941-9771-0-7 |page=371 }}</ref> In the [[Great Purge|Terror of 1937–38]], the ruling elite was purged of Abkhaz and by 1952 over 80% of the 228 top party and government officials and enterprise managers were ethnic Georgians; there remained 34 Abkhaz, 7 Russians and 3 Armenians in these positions.<ref>[http://abkhazworld.com/aw/history/499-stalin-beria-terror-in-abkhazia-1936-53-by-stephen-shenfield The Stalin-Beria Terror in Abkhazia, 1936–1953, by Stephen D. Shenfield] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910100322/http://abkhazworld.com/aw/history/499-stalin-beria-terror-in-abkhazia-1936-53-by-stephen-shenfield |date=10 September 2015 }} ''Abkhaz World'', 30 June 2010, retrieved 11 September 2015.</ref> [[Communist Party of Georgia (Soviet Union)|Georgian Communist Party]] leader [[Kandid Charkviani]] supported the Georgianization of Abkhazia.<ref>Bernard A. Cook (2014). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=P7-2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT46 Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124224128/https://books.google.com/books?id=P7-2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT46 |date=24 January 2016 }}''". Routledge. p.2. {{ISBN|1-135-17932-8}}</ref> Peasant households from the rest of the Georgian SSR were resettled to Abkhazia, which included the organised settlement of ethnic Georgians.<ref name="Reaktion books">{{cite book |last1=Rayfield |first1=Donald |title=Edge of Empires. A History of Georgia |date=2012 |publisher=Reaktion books |isbn=978-1-78023-030-6 |page=363}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Tüysüzoğlu |editor1-first=Göktürk |editor2-last=Özkan |editor2-first=Arda |title=Conflict Areas in the Caucasus and Central Asia |date=25 January 2022 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-7936-5126-6 |page=36}}</ref> About 9,000 peasant households were settled in the underpopulated areas of Abkhazia between 1947 and 1952 and left to fend for themselves.<ref name="Reaktion books"/>

The policy of repression was eased after Stalin's death and Beria's execution, and the Abkhaz were given a greater role in the governance of the republic.<ref name="BBC"/> As in most of the smaller autonomous republics, the Soviet government encouraged the development of culture and particularly of literature.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Saparov |first1=Arsène |title=From Conflict to Autonomy in the Caucasus: The Soviet Union and the Making of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Nagorno Karabakh |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-63784-4 |page=150}}</ref> The Abkhazian ASSR was the only autonomous republic in the USSR in which the language of the titular nation (in that case Abkhazian) was confirmed in its constitution as one of its official languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://geocities.com/abkhazia_dream/public/19.htm |script-title=ru:ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ: Государственной комиссии Грузии по установлению фактов политики этнической чистки – геноцида, проводимой в отношении грузинского населения Абхазии, Грузия, и передачи материалов в Международный трибунал |trans-title=CONCLUSION: State Commission of Georgia on established facts of the politics of ethnic cleansing – genocide carried out against the Georgian population of Abkhazia, Georgia, and the transfer of materials to the International Tribunal |language=ru |publisher=geocities.com |date=February 1997 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027111846/http://geocities.com/abkhazia_dream/public/19.htm |archive-date=27 October 2009}}</ref>

In the [[World War II|post-war]] period, the Abkhazian ASSR was dominated by the ethnic Abkhazs, which occupied much more positions in the autonomous republic compared to Georgians. During the late Soviet period, ethnic Abkhazs occupied 41% of the seats in Abkhazian Supreme Soviet, and 67% of the republican ministers were ethnically Abkhaz. Moreover, they held even larger proportion of lower level official posts within the autonomous republic. The first secretary of the communist party in Abkhazia was also ethnically Abkhaz. All of this was despite the fact that Abkhazians made up only 17.8% of the region’s population, while Georgians were 45.7% and other ethnicities (Greeks, Russians, Armenians, etc.) — 36,5%.<ref>{{cite book |last= Wheatley|first=Jonathan|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dGqLAAAAMAAJ|title= Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution |date=2005 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|isbn= 9780754645030|page=57}}</ref>
===Post-Soviet Georgia===
{{main|Georgian–Abkhaz conflict}}
As the [[Soviet Union]] began to disintegrate at the end of the 1980s, ethnic tensions grew between the Abkhaz and Georgians over Georgia's moves towards independence. Many Abkhaz opposed this, fearing that an independent Georgia would lead to the elimination of their autonomy, and argued instead for the establishment of Abkhazia as a separate Soviet republic in its own right. With the onset of [[perestroika]], the agenda of Abkhaz nationalists became more radical and exclusive.<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |title=Conflict Resolution and Status: the Case of Georgia and Abkhazia (1989–2008). |last=Céline. |first=Francis |date=2011 |publisher=ASP |isbn=978-90-5487-899-5 |location=Bruxelles |oclc=922966407}}</ref> In 1988, they began to ask for the reinstatement of Abkhazia's former status of [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Union Republic]], as the submission of Abkhazia to another Union Republic was not considered to give enough guarantees of their development.<ref name="auto"/> They justified their request by referring to the Leninist tradition of the right of nations to self-determination, which they asserted was violated when Abkhazia's sovereignty was curtailed in 1931.<ref name="auto"/> In June 1988, a manifesto defending Abkhaz distinctiveness (known as the [[Abkhazian Letter|Abkhaz Letter]]) was sent to Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]].{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

The Georgian–Abkhaz [[1989 Sukhumi riots|dispute turned violent]] on 16 July 1989 in Sukhumi. Numerous Georgians were killed or injured when they tried to enroll in a Georgian university instead of an Abkhaz one. After several days of violence, Soviet troops restored order in the city.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}

In March 1990, Georgia declared sovereignty, unilaterally nullifying treaties concluded by the Soviet government since 1921 and thereby moving closer to independence. The Republic of Georgia boycotted the 17 March 1991 [[1991 Soviet Union referendum|all-Union referendum]] on the renewal of the Soviet Union called by Gorbachev; however, 52.3% of Abkhazia's population (almost all of the ethnic non-Georgian population) took part in the referendum and voted by an overwhelming majority (98.6%) to preserve the Union.<ref>Conciliation Resources. [http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/georgia-abkhazia/chronology.php Georgia-Abkhazia, Chronology] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061007200548/http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/georgia-abkhazia/chronology.php |date=7 October 2006 }}</ref><ref>Парламентская газета (''Parlamentskaya Gazeta''). [http://www.pnp.ru/archive/18870125.html Референдум о сохранении СССР. Грузия строит демократию на беззаконии.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928082832/http://www.pnp.ru/archive/18870125.html |date=28 September 2007 }} Георгий Николаев, 17 March 2006 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> Most ethnic non-Georgians in Abkhazia later boycotted a 31 March [[1991 Georgian independence referendum|referendum on Georgia's independence]], which was supported by a huge majority of Georgia's population. Within weeks, Georgia declared independence on 9 April 1991, under former Soviet dissident [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]]. Under Gamsakhurdia, the situation was relatively calm in Abkhazia and a power-sharing agreement was soon reached between the Abkhaz and Georgian factions, granting to the Abkhaz a certain over-representation in the local legislature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Georgia: Abkhazia and South Ossetia |url=https://pesd.princeton.edu/?q=node/274 |website=www.pesd.princeton.edu |publisher=Encyclopedia Princetoniensis |access-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804112845/https://pesd.princeton.edu/?q=node%2F274 |archive-date=4 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Coppieters, Bruno ''et al.''(2005), ''Statehood and security: Georgia after the Rose Revolution'', p. 384. American Academy of Arts and Sciences, {{ISBN|978-0-262-03343-5}}</ref>

Gamsakhurdia's rule was soon challenged by armed opposition groups, under the command of [[Tengiz Kitovani]], that forced him to flee the country in a [[1991–1992 Georgian coup d'état|military coup]] in January 1992. Gamsakhurdia was replaced by former [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Georgian]] leader and Soviet foreign minister [[Eduard Shevardnadze]], who became the country's head of state.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=[[Greensboro]]|title=Shevardnadze Named Head of New Government|language=en-US|url=https://greensboro.com/shevardnadze-named-head-of-new-government/article_d02d70f0-9c07-52b2-83c2-3625238a52d7.html|date=10 March 1992|access-date=2023-02-10}}</ref> On 21 February 1992, Georgia's ruling military council announced that it was abolishing the Soviet-era constitution and restoring the 1921 Constitution of the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]. Many Abkhaz interpreted this as an abolition of their autonomous status, although the 1921 constitution contained a provision for the region's autonomy.<ref>[http://www.rrc.ge/law/konstG_1921_02_21_e.htm?lawid=108&lng_3=en 1921 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Georgia] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523161919/http://www.rrc.ge/law/konstG_1921_02_21_e.htm?lawid=108&lng_3=en |date=23 May 2011 }}: Chapter XI, Articles 107–108 (adopted by the [[Constituent Assembly of Georgia]] 21 February 1921): "Abkhasie (district of Soukhoum), ..., which are integral parts of the Georgian Republic, enjoy autonomy in the administration of their affairs. The statute concerning the autonomy of [these] districts ... will be the object of special legislation". Regional Research Centre. Retrieved on 25 November 2008.</ref> On 23 July 1992, the Abkhaz faction in the republic's Supreme Council declared effective independence from Georgia, although the session was boycotted by ethnic Georgian deputies and the gesture went unrecognised by any other country. The Abkhaz leadership launched a campaign of ousting Georgian officials from their offices, a process which was accompanied by violence. In the meantime, the Abkhaz leader [[Vladislav Ardzinba]] intensified his ties with hard-line Russian politicians and military elite and declared he was ready for a war with Georgia.<ref name=Svante>[[Svante Cornell|Svante E. Cornell]] (2001), Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, pp. 345–9. Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1162-8}}.</ref> To respond to this situation, [[Eduard Shevardnadze]], new leader of Georgia, had interrupted his trip to Western Georgia, where the [[Georgian Civil War]] had been going on between his government and supporters of former President [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]], ousted during the [[1991–1992 Georgian coup d'état|December 1991 Coup]]. Shevardnadze announced that the Abkhaz faction took the decision without considering the opinion of the majority of population in Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/07/25/New-ethnic-dispute-in-Georgia/7680712036800/|title=New ethnic dispute in Georgia|date=25 July 1992|publisher=UPI|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>

=== War in Abkhazia ===
{{main|War in Abkhazia (1992–93)}}
[[File:1993 Georgia war1.svg|thumb|[[Georgian Civil War]] and the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|War in Abkhazia]] in August–October 1993]]

In August 1992, [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|war broke out]] when the [[National Guard of Georgia]] entered Abkhazia to free captive Georgian officials,<ref name="petersen"/>{{sfn|de Waal|2010|pp=157-158}}{{sfn|Coene|2010|p=150}} and to reopen the railway line.<ref name="nalbandov">{{cite journal |url=http://georgica.tsu.edu.ge/files/05-Security/Nalbandov-2009.pdf |title=BATTLE OF TWO LOGICS: APPROPRIATENESS AND CONSEQUENTIALITY IN RUSSIAN INTERVENTIONS IN GEORGIA |author=Robert Nalbandov |journal=Caucasian Review of International Affairs |volume=3 |issue=1 |date=Winter 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501121813/http://georgica.tsu.edu.ge/files/05-Security/Nalbandov-2009.pdf |archive-date=1 May 2016 }}</ref><ref name="ceiig">{{cite web|url=http://www.ceiig.ch/pdf/IIFFMCG_Volume_II.pdf|title=Report. Volume II|date=September 2009|publisher=IIFFMCG|pages=75–76}}</ref>{{sfn|George|2009|p=116}}{{sfn|de Waal|2010|pp=157-158}}<ref name="Jackson">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BEqBAgAAQBAJ |title=Russian Foreign Policy and the CIS |author=Nicole J. Jackson |year=2003 | publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |pages=113–115|isbn=978-1-134-40359-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://countrystudies.us/georgia/20.htm |chapter=Abkhazia |title=Georgia: A Country Study |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |year=1994}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=On the Front Lines in the near Abroad: The CIS and the OSCE in Georgia's Civil Wars |author=S. Neil MacFarlane |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=18 |issue=3 |year=1997 |page=514}}</ref> Abkhaz troops were the first to open fire.<ref name="petersen">{{cite journal |url=http://cria-online.org/5_3.html |title=The 1992-93 Georgia-Abkhazia War: A Forgotten Conflict |author=Alexandros Petersen |journal=Caucasian Review of International Affairs |volume=2 |issue=4 |date=Autumn 2008 |pages=187–199 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620204500/http://cria-online.org/5_3.html |archive-date=20 June 2010 }}</ref>{{sfn|George|2009|p=116}} Abkhaz separatist government retreated to [[Gudauta]] where the Russian military base was located.<ref name="petersen"/>{{sfn|de Waal|2010|pp=157-158}}{{sfn|Coene|2010|p=150}}{{sfn|Cornell|2001|p=159}} [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] reported the ethnic-based violence against Georgians in Gudauta.<ref name=C.Dale>Catherine Dale. The Dynamics and Challenges of Ethnic Cleansing: The Georgia-Abkhazia Case, 1 August 1997, by Catherine. Dale, Oxford Press, Refugee Survey Quarterly.1997; 16: 77-109</ref> The Abkhaz were relatively unarmed at the time and the Georgian troops were able to march into the capital Sukhumi with relatively little resistance<ref name=mirsky1/> and subsequently engaged in ethnically based pillage, looting, assault, and murder.<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/georgia/georgia953.pdf Full Report by Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. Georgia/Abkhazia. Violations of the laws of war and Russia's role in the conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119070959/https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/georgia/georgia953.pdf |date=19 November 2015 }} Helsinki, March 1995. p. 22</ref>

The Abkhaz military defeat was met with a hostile response by the self-styled [[Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus]], an [[Umbrella organization|umbrella group]] uniting a number of movements in the [[North Caucasus]], including elements of [[Circassians]], [[Abazins]], [[Chechens]], [[Cossacks]], [[Ossetians]] and hundreds of volunteer paramilitaries and mercenaries from Russia, including the then-little-known [[Shamil Basayev]], later a leader of the anti-Moscow Chechen secessionists. They sided with the Abkhaz separatists to fight against the Georgian government. Russian military did not impede the crossing of the Russia-Georgia border by the North Caucasian militants into Abkhazia.{{sfn|Cornell|2001|p=338}}{{sfn|Coene|2010|p=150}}{{sfn|de Waal|2010|p=160}}<ref name="petersen"/> In the case of Basayev, it has been suggested that when he and the members of his battalion came to Abkhazia, they received training by the Russian Army (though others dispute this), presenting another possible motive.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Chechen's Story: From Unrivaled Guerrilla Leader to the Terror of Russia |date=15 September 2004 |access-date=6 April 2011 |author=C.J.Shivers |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/15/international/europe/15chechen.html?pagewanted=1 |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528054255/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/15/international/europe/15chechen.html?pagewanted=1 |archive-date=28 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> on September 25, 1992, [[Supreme Soviet of Russia|Russian Supreme Council]] (parliament) passed a resolution which condemned Georgia, supported Abkhazia and called for the suspension of the delivery of any weapons and equipment to Georgia and the deployment of a Russian peacekeeping force in Abkhazia. It was sponsored by a [[Russian nationalism|Russian nationalist]] politician [[Sergei Baburin]], a Russian deputy who met [[Vladislav Ardzinba]] and argued that he was not that much sure that Abkhazia was part of Georgia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bennett |first=Andrew |title=Condemned to repetition?: the rise, fall, and reprise of Soviet-Russian military interventionism, 1973-1996 |date=1999 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=9780262522571 |page=319}}</ref> In October, the Abkhaz and North Caucasian paramilitaries mounted a major [[Battle of Gagra|offensive against Gagra]] after breaking a cease-fire, which drove the Georgian forces out of large swathes of the republic. Shevardnadze's government accused Russia of giving covert military support to the rebels with the aim of "detaching from Georgia its native territory and the Georgia-Russian frontier land". 1992 ended with the rebels in control of much of Abkhazia northwest of Sukhumi.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

The conflict was in stalemate until July 1993, when Abkhaz separatist militias launched an abortive attack on Georgian-held Sukhumi. They surrounded and heavily shelled the capital, where Shevardnadze was trapped. The warring sides [[Sochi agreement|agreed to a Russian-brokered truce in Sochi]] at the end of July. But the ceasefire broke down again on 16 September 1993. Abkhaz forces, with armed support from outside Abkhazia, launched attacks on Sukhumi and Ochamchire. Notwithstanding UN Security Council's call for the immediate cessation of hostilities and its condemnation of the violation of the ceasefire by the Abkhaz side, fighting continued.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unomig/background.html |title=UNOMIG: United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia – Background |work=un.org |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170519123621/http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unomig/background.html |archive-date=19 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> After ten days of heavy fighting, Sukhumi was taken by Abkhazian forces on 27 September 1993. Shevardnadze narrowly escaped death, after vowing to stay in the city no matter what. He changed his mind, however, and decided to flee when separatist snipers fired on the hotel where he was staying. Abkhaz, North Caucasian militants, and their allies committed numerous atrocities<ref name="hrwreport"/> against the city's remaining ethnic Georgians, in what has been dubbed the [[Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Sukhumi|Sukhumi Massacre]]. The mass killings and destruction continued for two weeks, leaving thousands dead and missing.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

The Abkhaz forces quickly overran the rest of Abkhazia as the Georgian government faced a second threat; an uprising by the supporters of the deposed Zviad Gamsakhurdia in the region of Mingrelia (Samegrelo). Only a small region of eastern Abkhazia, the [[Upper Abkhazia|upper Kodori gorge]], remained under Georgian control (until 2008).{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

During the war, gross human rights violations were reported on both sides (see [[Human Rights Watch]] report).<ref name="hrwreport"/> Georgian troops have been accused of having committed looting<ref name=mirsky1>On Ruins of Empire: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former Soviet Union, pg 72, by Georgiy I. Mirsky, published by [[Greenwood Publishing Group]], sponsored by the [[London School of Economics]]</ref> and murders "for the purpose of terrorising, robbing and driving the Abkhaz population out of their homes"<ref name="hrwreport"/><!--p.22--> in the first phase of the war (according to [[Human Rights Watch]]), while Georgia blames the Abkhaz forces and their allies for the ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia, which has also been recognised by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE) Summits in [[Budapest]] (1994),<ref name=osce1>{{cite web |url=http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/osce/new/Regional-Issues.html |title=CSCE Budapest Document 1994, Budapest Decisions, Regional Issues |publisher=.umn.edu |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607174605/http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/osce/new/Regional-Issues.html |archive-date=7 June 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Lisbon]] (1996)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/4049_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606104714/http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/4049_en.pdf |title=Lisbon OSCE Summit Declaration |archive-date=6 June 2011}}</ref> and [[Istanbul]] (1999).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.osce.org/documents/mcs/1999/11/4050_en.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003061526/http://www.osce.org/documents/mcs/1999/11/4050_en.pdf |title=Istanbul Document 1999 |date=19 November 1999  |archive-date=3 October 2006 |website=[[osce.org]]}}</ref>

===Ethnic cleansing of Georgians===
{{main|Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia}}
[[File:Abkhazia genocide anniversary 2005.jpg|thumb|Exhibition at the 2005 commemoration of the ethnic cleansing in Abkhazia, held on its 12th anniversary in Tbilisi.]]
Before the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|1992 War in Abkhazia]], Georgians made up nearly half of Abkhazia's population, while less than one-fifth of the population was [[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]].<ref name=censuses2>{{cite journal |last1=Kolossov |first1=Vladimir |last2=O'Loughlin |first2=John |title=After the Wars in the South CaucasusState of Georgia: Economic Insecuritiesand Migration in the "De Facto" Statesof Abkhazia and South Ossetia |journal=Eurasian Geography and Economics |year=2011 |volume=52 |issue=5 |page=634 |doi=10.2747/1539-7216.52.5.631 |s2cid=154652086| issn=1538-7216}}</ref> As the war progressed, confronted with hundreds of thousands of ethnic Georgians who were unwilling to leave their homes, the Abkhaz separatists implemented the process of [[ethnic cleansing]] in order to expel and eliminate the Georgian ethnic population in Abkhazia.<ref>The Guns of August 2008, Russia's War in Georgia, Svante Cornell & Frederick Starr, p. 27</ref><ref>US State Department, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993, February 1994, pp. 120</ref> About 5,000 were killed, 400 went missing<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gamakharia |first1=Jemal |title=International Society to Bring a Verdict on the Tragedy of Abkhazia/Georgia |date=2015 |isbn=978-9941-461-12-5 |page=7 |publisher=Khvicha Kardava |url=http://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/117908/1/Genocidi.pdf |access-date=31 January 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207023607/http://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/117908/1/Genocidi.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and up to 250,000 ethnic Georgians were expelled from their homes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/abkhazia-the-disputed-land-of-the-soul/ |title=Abkhazia – the disputed land of the soul |date=20 August 1997 |access-date=18 December 2018 |archive-date=26 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026225909/http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/abkhazia-the-disputed-land-of-the-soul/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to [[International Crisis Group]], as of 2006 slightly over 200,000 Georgians remained displaced in Georgia proper.<ref name="Abkhazia Today">{{cite web |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/abkhazia-today |title=Europe Report N°176: Abkhazia Today |publisher=Crisisgroup.org |date=15 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222171833/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/europe/south-caucasus/georgia/176-abkhazia-today.aspx |archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref>

The campaign of ethnic cleansing also included Russians, Armenians, Greeks, moderate Abkhaz and other minor ethnic groups living in Abkhazia. More than 20,000 houses owned by ethnic Georgians were destroyed. Hundreds of schools, kindergartens, churches, hospitals, and historical monuments were pillaged and destroyed.<ref>Conflict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia, and the Russian Shadow by S. A. Chervonnaia and Svetlana Mikhailovna Chervonnaia, pp 12–13</ref>{{better source needed|date=February 2021}} Following the process of ethnic cleansing and mass expulsion, the population of Abkhazia has been reduced to 216,000, from 525,000 in 1989.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldreview.info/content/washington-shames-moscow-over-occupied-abkhazia |title=World Review – Washington shames Moscow over 'occupied' Abkhazia |website=www.worldreview.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202161044/http://www.worldreview.info/content/washington-shames-moscow-over-occupied-abkhazia |archive-date=2 February 2014}}</ref> [[Pogroms]] against ethnic Georgians organized by Abkhaz leaders continued even after the end of war, as far as February 1995.<ref>{{Cite news |agency=[[New York Times]]|date=1995-02-05|title=In Caucasus, Separatist Struggle Is Pursued as a Pogrom|work=The New York Times |language=en-US|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/05/world/in-caucasus-separatist-struggle-is-pursued-as-a-pogrom.html|access-date=2023-02-10 |last1=Bonner |first1=Raymond }}</ref>

Of about 250,000 Georgian refugees, some 60,000 subsequently returned to Abkhazia's [[Gali District, Abkhazia|Gali District]] between 1994 and 1998, but tens of thousands were displaced again when fighting resumed in the Gali District in 1998. Nevertheless, between 40,000 and 60,000 refugees have returned to the Gali District since 1998, including persons commuting daily across the ceasefire line and those migrating seasonally in accordance with agricultural cycles.<ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/publ/RSDLEGAL/43a6878d4.pdf UN High Commissioner for refugees. Background note on the Protection of Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Georgia remaining outside Georgia], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070628110410/http://www.unhcr.org/publ/RSDLEGAL/43a6878d4.pdf |date=28 June 2007 }}</ref> The human rights situation remained precarious for a while in the Georgian-populated areas of the Gali District. The United Nations and other international organisations have been fruitlessly urging the Abkhaz ''de facto'' authorities "to refrain from adopting measures incompatible with the right to return and with international human rights standards, such as discriminatory legislation... [and] to cooperate in the establishment of a permanent international human rights office in Gali and to admit United Nations civilian police without further delay."<ref>{{cite report |last=Kälin |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Kälin |url=http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/idp/200603_rpt_Georgia.pdf |title=Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General on the human rights of internally displaced persons – Mission to Georgia (21 to 24 December 2005) |publisher=United Nations |date=24 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061223084834/http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/idp/200603_rpt_Georgia.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2006}}</ref> Key officials of the Gali District are virtually all ethnic Abkhaz, though their support staff are ethnic Georgian.<ref name="Today">[https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/abkhazia-today Abkhazia Today.] ''The [[International Crisis Group]] Europe Report N°176, 15 September 2006'', page 10. Retrieved on 30 May 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510033711/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?l=1&id=4377 |date=10 May 2007 }}</ref>

===Post-war===
{{main|Georgian–Abkhaz conflict}}
[[File:Apsua Holding Apsny Flag.jpg|thumb|Abkhazians carrying the [[flag of Abkhazia|republic's flags]] in a parade]]
Presidential elections were held in Abkhazia on 3 October 2004. Russia supported [[Raul Khajimba]], the prime minister backed by the ailing outgoing separatist President [[Vladislav Ardzinba]].<ref>[https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/abkhazia Abkhazia Report] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926035645/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/abkhazia |date=26 September 2015 }}, [[Freedom House]], 2013</ref> Posters of Russia's President [[Vladimir Putin]] together with Khajimba, who, like Putin, had worked as a [[KGB]] official, were everywhere in Sukhumi.<ref name=kkuzel62425>{{cite web |url=http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/62425 |script-title=ru:Все – на выборы! |language=ru |first=Vitalii |last=Sharia |publisher=[[Caucasian Knot]] |date=2 October 2004 |access-date=14 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016223526/http://www.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/62425 |archive-date=16 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Deputies of Russia's parliament and Russian singers, led by [[Joseph Kobzon|Joseph Cobsohn]], a State Duma deputy and a popular singer, came to Abkhazia, campaigning for Khajimba.<ref>[http://lenta.ru/lib/14159612/ Profile of Raul Khadjimba] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926044700/http://lenta.ru/lib/14159612/ |date=26 September 2015 }}, Lenta.ru</ref>

However, Khajimba lost the elections to [[Sergei Bagapsh]]. The tense situation in the republic led to the cancellation of the election results by the Supreme Court. After that, a deal was struck between former rivals to run jointly, with Bagapsh as a presidential candidate and Khajimba as a vice-presidential candidate. They received more than 90% of the votes in the new election.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kavkaz-uzel.ru/docstext/docs/id/755026.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140311050418/http://kavkaz-uzel.ru/docstext/docs/id/755026.html |archive-date=11 March 2014 |title=Кавказский Узел – Протокол N 7 Центральной избирательной комиссии по выборам Президента Республики Абхазия от 14 января 2005 г. |work=Кавказский Узел}}</ref>

In July 2006, Georgian forces launched a successful police operation against the rebelled administrator of the Georgian-populated [[Kodori Valley]], [[Emzar Kvitsiani]]. Kvitsiani had been appointed by the previous president of Georgia [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] and refused to recognise the authority of president [[Mikheil Saakashvili]], who succeeded Shevardnadze after the [[Rose Revolution]]. Although Kvitsiani escaped capture by Georgian police, the Kodori Gorge was brought back under the control of the central government in [[Tbilisi]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Official: Government Forces Control Most of Kodori Gorge |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=13180 |website=civil.ge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008122517/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=13180 |archive-date=8 October 2007}}</ref>

Sporadic acts of violence continued throughout the postwar years. Despite the peacekeeping status of the Russian peacekeepers in Abkhazia, Georgian officials routinely claimed that Russian peacekeepers were inciting violence by supplying Abkhaz rebels with arms and financial support. Russian support of Abkhazia became pronounced when the [[Russian ruble]] became the [[de facto currency]] and Russia began issuing passports to the population of Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3261059.stm |work=BBC |title=Regions and territories: Abkhazia |date=15 December 2009 |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420194315/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3261059.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Georgia has also accused Russia of violating its airspace by sending helicopters to [[2007 Georgia helicopter incident|attack Georgian-controlled towns in the Kodori Gorge]]. In April 2008, a Russian MiG – prohibited from Georgian airspace, including Abkhazia – shot down a Georgian [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2008/04/airforce_georgian_uav_042208/ |title=Video shows Russian MiG downing Georgian UAV |publisher=Airforcetimes.com |date=23 April 2008 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090724175434/http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2008/04/airforce_georgian_uav_042208/ |archive-date=24 July 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AfRHMbz2nuU |title=Russian Jet shoots Georgian UAV |publisher=Youtube |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506225131/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AfRHMbz2nuU |archive-date=6 May 2008 }}</ref>

[[File:Pitsunda.JPG|thumb|Seaside in [[Pitsunda]], Abkhazia in 2006]]
On 9 August 2008, Abkhazian forces fired on Georgian forces in [[Kodori Valley|Kodori Gorge]]. This coincided with the [[Russo-Georgian War|2008 South Ossetia war]] where Russia decided to support the Ossetian separatists who had been attacked by Georgia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8281990.stm |work=BBC News |title=Georgia 'started unjustified war' |date=30 September 2009 |access-date=20 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420192452/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8281990.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/287861,report-blames-georgia-for-starting-war-with-russia-newspapers.html |title=Report blames Georgia for starting war with Russia: newspapers |publisher=Earthtimes.org |date=30 September 2009 |access-date=30 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905082212/http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/287861,report-blames-georgia-for-starting-war-with-russia-newspapers.html |archive-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> The conflict escalated into a full-scale war between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Georgia. On 10 August 2008, an estimated 9,000 Russian soldiers entered Abkhazia ostensibly to reinforce the Russian peacekeepers in the republic. About 1,000 Abkhazian soldiers moved to expel the residual Georgian forces within Abkhazia in the Upper Kodori Gorge.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKLA46909520080810 |title=Russia in operation to storm Abkhazia gorge |place=[[United Kingdom|UK]] |work=Reuters |date=10 August 2008 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112004345/http://uk.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKLA46909520080810 |archive-date=12 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> By 12 August the Georgian forces and civilians had evacuated the last part of Abkhazia under Georgian government control. Russia recognised the [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|independence of Abkhazia]] on 26 August 2008.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=5576812 |title=Russia: Georgia can 'forget' regaining provinces |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=The Associated Press |first1=David |last1=Nowak |first2=Christopher |last2=Torchia |date=14 August 2008 |access-date=20 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913011219/http://www.abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=5576812 |archive-date=13 September 2008 |url-status=live}}.</ref> This was followed by the annulment of the 1994 ceasefire agreement and the termination of [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UN]] and [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] monitoring missions.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav063009.shtml |title=Georgia: OSCE Terminates Its 17-Year Georgian Mission |publisher=Eurasianet |author=Jean-Christophe Peuch |date=29 June 2009 |access-date=18 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318104502/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav063009.shtml |archive-date=18 March 2014 }}</ref> On 28 August 2008, the [[Parliament of Georgia]] passed a resolution declaring Abkhazia a Russian-occupied territory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=98&info_id=20047 |title=Resolution of the Parliament of Georgia declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia occupied territories |publisher=[[Parliament of Georgia]] |date=29 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080903224516/http://www.parliament.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=98&info_id=20047 |archive-date=3 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19330 |title=Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory |website=Civil.Ge |location=Tbilisi |date=28 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080903230132/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19330 |archive-date=3 September 2008}}</ref>

Since independence was recognised by Russia, a series of controversial agreements were made between the Abkhazian government and the Russian Federation that leased or sold a number of key state assets and relinquished control over the borders. In May 2009 several opposition parties and war veteran groups protested against these deals complaining that they undermined state sovereignty and risked exchanging one colonial power (Georgia) for another (Russia).<ref name=rfe>{{cite news |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/Abkhaz_Leadership_Opposition_Exchange_Accusations/1738893.html |title=Abkhaz Leadership, Opposition Exchange Accusations |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe]] |newspaper=Caucasus Report |date=24 May 2009 |access-date=6 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090531105105/http://www.rferl.org/content/Abkhaz_Leadership_Opposition_Exchange_Accusations/1738893.html |archive-date=31 May 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The vice-president, Raul Khajimba, resigned on 28 May saying he agreed with the criticism the opposition had made.<ref name="apress0528">{{cite news |url=http://www.apsnypress.info/news2009/May/28.htm |script-title=ru:Вице-Президент Рауль Хаджимба Ушел в Отставку |trans-title=Vice-President Raul Khajimba has resigned |date=28 May 2009 |publisher=[[Apsnypress]] |language=ru |access-date=29 May 2009}} {{dead link|date=October 2016|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Subsequently, a conference of opposition parties nominated Raul Khajimba as their candidate in the December 2009 [[2009 Abkhazian presidential election|Abkhazian presidential election]] won by [[Sergei Bagapsh]].{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

==== Political developments since 2014 ====
{{main|Abkhazian Revolution}}
In the spring of 2014, the opposition submitted an ultimatum to President [[Alexander Ankvab|Aleksandr Ankvab]] to dismiss the government and make radical reforms.<ref name="khadzhimba">{{cite interview |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27607559 |last=Cecire |first=Michael H. |interviewer=[[BBC News]] |title=Analysis: Unrest in Abkhazia |publisher=BBC.com |date=28 May 2014 |access-date=29 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211185304/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27607559 |archive-date=11 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 27 May 2014, in the centre of [[Sukhumi]], 10,000 supporters of the Abkhaz opposition gathered for a mass demonstration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gordonua.com/news/worldnews/glava-abhazii-otpravil-v-otstavku-pravitelstvo-posle-popytki-shturma-oppoziciey-administracii-prezidenta-24617.html |script-title=ru:Глава Абхазии отправил в отставку правительство после попытки штурма оппозицией администрации президента |trans-title=The head of Abkhazia sacked the government after near assaults by the presidential administration's opposition |language=ru |date=27 May 2014 |access-date=29 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310171218/http://gordonua.com/news/worldnews/glava-abhazii-otpravil-v-otstavku-pravitelstvo-posle-popytki-shturma-oppoziciey-administracii-prezidenta-24617.html |archive-date=10 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> On the same day, Ankvab's headquarters in [[Sukhumi]] was stormed by opposition groups led by [[Raul Khajimba]], forcing him into flight to [[Gudauta]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Georgia Abkhazia: Leader 'flees' protesters in Sukhumi |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27600919 |access-date=28 May 2014 |date=28 May 2014 |agency=[[BBC News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529122555/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-27600919 |archive-date=29 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The opposition claimed that the protests were sparked by poverty, but the main point of contention was President Ankvab's liberal policy towards ethnic Georgians in the [[Gali District, Abkhazia|Gali region]]. The opposition said these policies could endanger Abkhazia's ethnic Abkhazian identity.<ref name="khadzhimba"/>

After Ankvab fled the capital, on 31 May, the [[People's Assembly of Abkhazia]] appointed parliamentary speaker [[Valeri Bganba|Valery Bganba]] as acting president, declaring Ankvab unable to serve. It also decided to hold an early presidential election on 24 August 2014.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} Ankvab soon declared his formal resignation, although he accused his opponents of acting immorally and violating the constitution.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/02/world/europe/president-resigns-in-georgias-breakaway-region-of-abkhazia.html |title=President of Georgian Abkhazia Resigns Under Pressure |first=David M. |last=Herszenhorn |date=1 June 2014 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914035459/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/02/world/europe/president-resigns-in-georgias-breakaway-region-of-abkhazia.html |archive-date=14 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Raul Khajimba was later [[2014 Abkhazian presidential election|elected president]], taking office in September 2014.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=27685 |agency=Civil Georgia |title=New Abkhaz Leader Takes Office |date=25 September 2014 |access-date=9 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110062906/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=27685 |archive-date=10 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In November 2014, Vladimir Putin moved to formalise the Abkhazian military's relationship as part of the Russian armed forces, signing a treaty with Khajimba.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30071915 |title=Georgians protest against Russia-Abkhazia agreement |last=Dahlstrom |first=Katie |date=15 November 2014 |website=BBC.com |access-date=15 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115231644/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30071915 |archive-date=15 November 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/24239f90-73e8-11e4-82a6-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3OO6EwaPi |newspaper=Financial Times |title=Vladimir Putin signs treaty with Abkhazia and puts Tbilisi on edge |date=24 November 2014 |access-date=9 January 2015 |first=Jack |last=Farchy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230131736/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/24239f90-73e8-11e4-82a6-00144feabdc0.html#axzz3OO6EwaPi |archive-date=30 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Georgian government denounced the agreement as "a step towards annexation".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-georgia-abkhazia-idUSKCN0J81KI20141124 |work=Reuters |title=Putin strengthens ties with Georgia breakaway region; Tbilisi protests |date=24 November 2014 |access-date=9 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109231235/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/11/24/us-russia-georgia-abkhazia-idUSKCN0J81KI20141124 |archive-date=9 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In December 2021, there was [[2021 Abkhazia unrest|unrest]] in the territory.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Opposition Protests In Georgia's Breakaway Abkhazia Turn Violent |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-abkhazia-opposition-protests/31620013.html |access-date=22 December 2021 |newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=21 December 2021 |language=en |archive-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221212040/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-abkhazia-opposition-protests/31620013.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Status==

{{main|International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia}}
[[File:Georgia high detail map.png|thumb|left|Map of Georgia highlighting Abkhazia (green) and [[South Ossetia]] (purple)]]
Abkhazia, [[Transnistria]], and [[South Ossetia]] are post-Soviet "[[frozen conflict]]" zones.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Socor |first=Vladimir |author-link=Vladimir Socor |url=http://www.iasps.org/eng_editor/socor_show.php?lang=&main=&type=6&article_id=356 |title=Frozen Conflicts in the Black Sea-South Caucasus Region |journal=IASPS Policy Briefings: Geostrategic Perspectives on Eurasia |publisher=Institute for Advanced Strategic & Political Studies |location=Washington, D.C. |issue=52 |date=18 February 2004 |access-date=26 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605100210/http://www.iasps.org/eng_editor/socor_show.php?lang=&main=&type=6&article_id=356 |archive-date=5 June 2013}}</ref> These three states maintain friendly relations with each other and form the [[Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]].<ref name="recognition1">{{cite web |url=http://www.newsru.com/russia/17nov2006/aup.html |script-title=ru:Абхазия, Южная Осетия и Приднестровье признали независимость друг друга и призвали всех к этому же |trans-title=Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Transnistria have recognised each other's independence and have called on all to do the same |language=ru |publisher=[[Newsru]] |date=17 November 2006 |access-date=26 August 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416050525/http://www.newsru.com/russia/17nov2006/aup.html |archive-date=16 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://mfa-pmr.org/index.php?newsid=1835 |title=Head of Foreign Ministry of the Republic of South Ossetia congratulated Minister of Foreign Affairs of the PMR with Sixth Anniversary of Creation of Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations |publisher=The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PMR |date=15 June 2012 |access-date=26 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327221341/http://mfa-pmr.org/index.php?newsid=1835 |archive-date=27 March 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Vichos |first=Ioannis F. |url=http://www.ekemeuroenergy.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=179:moldovas-energy-strategy-and-the-frozen-conflict-of-transnistria&catid=45:caspian-sea-black-sea-and-south-east-europe&Itemid=69 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130615070819/http://www.ekemeuroenergy.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=179:moldovas-energy-strategy-and-the-frozen-conflict-of-transnistria&catid=45:caspian-sea-black-sea-and-south-east-europe&Itemid=69 |archive-date=15 June 2013 |title="Moldova's Energy Strategy and the "Frozen Conflict" of Transnistria" |publisher=Ekemeuroenergy.org}}</ref> Russia and Nicaragua officially recognised Abkhazia after the [[Russo-Georgian War]]. Venezuela recognised Abkhazia in September 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8248102.stm |title=Chavez recognises Georgia rebels |work=BBC News |date=10 September 2009 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420220635/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8248102.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/gc07/idUSN2945876620080829 Chavez Backs Russian Recognition of Georgian Regions] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606055635/http://www.reuters.com/article/gc07/idUSN2945876620080829 |date=6 June 2009 }} Reuters. Retrieved 29 August 2008.</ref> In December 2009, [[Nauru]] recognised Abkhazia, reportedly in return for $50&nbsp;million in humanitarian aid from Russia.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/dec/14/nauro-recognises-abkhazia-south-ossetia |title=Tiny Nauru struts world stage by recognising breakaway republics |last=Harding |first=Luke |date=14 December 2009 |work=The Guardian |access-date=14 December 2009 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091217092833/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/dec/14/nauro-recognises-abkhazia-south-ossetia |archive-date=17 December 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The unrecognised republic of Transnistria and the partially recognised republic of South Ossetia have recognised Abkhazia since 2006. Abkhazia is also a member of the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]] (UNPO).{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

A majority of sovereign states recognise Abkhazia as an integral part of Georgia and support its [[territorial integrity]] according to the principles of [[international law]], although Belarus has expressed sympathy toward the recognition of Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/29/content_9731534.htm |title=Diplomat: Belarus to recognise Abkhazia, South Ossetia soon |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |date=29 August 2008 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111091437/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/29/content_9731534.htm |archive-date=11 January 2009 }}</ref> Some have officially noted Abkhazia as under [[Russian-occupied territories in Georgia|occupation by the Russian military]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shaheen.senate.gov/news/press/release/?id=73BEE74C-31AD-4F39-B03B-F98889B70B33 |title=U.S. Senate Unanimously Passes Shaheen-Graham Resolution Affirming U.S. Support for Georgian Sovereignty |website=U.S. Senator for New Hempshire |date=29 July 2011 |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206115711/http://www.shaheen.senate.gov/news/press/release/?id=73bee74c-31ad-4f39-b03b-f98889b70b33 |archive-date=6 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&reference=P7-TA-2011-0514 |title=Negotiations of the EU-Georgia Association Agreement |website=European Parliament |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150805173606/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&reference=P7-TA-2011-0514 |archive-date=5 August 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nato-pa.int/default.asp?SHORTCUT=2245 |title=RESOLUTION 382 ON THE SITUATION IN GEORGIA |website=NATO Parliamentary Assembly |access-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402131545/http://www.nato-pa.int/default.asp?SHORTCUT=2245 |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref> The United Nations has been urging both sides to settle the dispute through diplomatic dialogue and ratifying the final status of Abkhazia in the Georgian constitution.<ref name="hrwreport">[https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/georgia/georgia953.pdf Full Report by Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch. Georgia/Abkhazia. Violations of the laws of war and Russia's role in the conflict] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119070959/https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/g/georgia/georgia953.pdf |date=19 November 2015 }} Helsinki, March 1995</ref><ref>Chervonnaia, Svetlana Mikhailovna. Conflict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia, and the Russian Shadow. Gothic Image Publications, 1994.</ref> However, the Abkhaz ''de facto'' government considers Abkhazia a sovereign country even if it is recognised by few other countries. In early 2000, then-UN Special Representative of the Secretary General Dieter Boden and the Group of Friends of Georgia, consisting of the representatives of Russia, the United States, Britain, France, and Germany, drafted and informally presented a document to the parties outlining a possible distribution of competencies between the Abkhaz and Georgian authorities, based on core respect for Georgian territorial integrity. The Abkhaz side, however, has never accepted the paper as a basis for negotiations.<ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/53745.htm The Abkhazia Conflict.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117125115/https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/53745.htm|date=17 November 2017}} [[U.S. Department of State]] Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. 28 July 2005. [https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/53745.htm] </ref> Eventually, Russia also withdrew its approval of the document.<ref>[[Vladimir Socor]] (7 February 2006), [https://jamestown.org/program/moscow-kills-boden-paper-threatens-to-terminate-unomig-in-georgia/ Moscow kills Boden paper, threatens to terminate UNOMIG in Georgia.] ''Eurasia Daily Monitor'', Volume 3, Number 26. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016205130/http://jamestown.org/edm/article.php?volume_id=414&issue_id=3610&article_id=2370748 |date=16 October 2006 }}</ref> In 2005 and 2008, the Georgian government offered Abkhazia a high degree of [[autonomy]] and possible [[Federal republic|federal structure]] within the borders and [[jurisdiction]] of Georgia.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

On 18 October 2006, the [[People's Assembly of Abkhazia]] passed a resolution, calling upon Russia, international organisations and the rest of the international community to recognise Abkhaz independence on the basis that Abkhazia possesses all the properties of an independent state.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D1CBBFA0-4833-4AA5-B13D-7065DE6A769F.htm |title=Breakaway Abkhazia seeks recognition |website=[[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al-Jazeera]] |date=18 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061105025948/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D1CBBFA0-4833-4AA5-B13D-7065DE6A769F.htm |archive-date=5 November 2006}}</ref> The United Nations has reaffirmed "the commitment of all Member States to the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognised borders" and outlined the basic principles of conflict resolution which call for immediate return of all displaced persons and for non-resumption of hostilities.<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2008/sc9299.doc.htm UN Security Council Resolution 1808] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226080900/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2008/sc9299.doc.htm |date=26 February 2014 }}. 15 April 2008.</ref>

Georgia accuses the Abkhaz secessionists of having conducted a deliberate campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]] of up to 250,000 Georgians, a claim supported by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE; Budapest, Lisbon and Istanbul declaration).<ref>[http://www.osce.org/documents/mcs/1994/12/4048_en.pdf Resolution of the OSCE Budapest Summit] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127050200/http://www.osce.org/documents/mcs/1994/12/4048_en.pdf |date=27 November 2007 }}, [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], 6 December 1994</ref> The UN Security Council has avoided the use of the term "ethnic cleansing" but has affirmed "the unacceptability of the demographic changes resulting from the conflict".<ref>[http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/georgia-abkhazia/profiles.php Georgia-Abkhazia: Profiles] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930015502/http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/georgia-abkhazia/profiles.php |date=30 September 2007 }}. Accord: an international review of peace initiatives. Reconciliation Resources. Retrieved 2 April 2007.</ref> On 15 May 2008, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopted a non-binding resolution recognising the right of all refugees (including victims of reported "ethnic cleansing") to return to Abkhazia and to retain or regain their property rights there. It "regretted" the attempts to alter pre-war demographic composition and called for the "rapid development of a timetable to ensure the prompt voluntary return of all refugees and internally displaced persons to their homes."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2008/ga10708.doc.htm |title=General Assembly adopts resolution recognising right of return by refugees, internally displaced persons to Abkhazia, Georgia |publisher=United Nations |date=15 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917010019/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2008/ga10708.doc.htm |archive-date=17 September 2008}}</ref>

On 28 March 2008, the [[President of Georgia]] [[Mikheil Saakashvili]] unveiled his government's new proposals to Abkhazia: the broadest possible autonomy within the framework of a Georgian state, a joint free economic zone, representation in the central authorities including the post of vice-president with the right to veto Abkhaz-related decisions.<ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=17473 Saakashvili Outlines Tbilisi's Abkhaz Initiatives] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813005308/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=17473 |date=13 August 2008 }}. ''Civil Georgia''. 28 March 2008.</ref> The Abkhaz leader [[Sergei Bagapsh]] rejected these new initiatives as "propaganda", leading to Georgia's complaints that this skepticism was "triggered by Russia, rather than by real mood of the Abkhaz people."<ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=17477 Burjanadze: Russia Behind Sokhumi's No to New Proposals] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813035733/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=17477 |date=13 August 2008 }}. ''Civil Georgia''. 29 March 2008.</ref>

[[File:Embassy of Russia in Sukhumi.jpg|thumb|The Russian embassy in Sukhumi]]
On 3 July 2008, the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE Parliamentary Assembly]] passed a resolution at its annual session in [[Astana]], expressing concern over Russia's recent moves in breakaway Abkhazia. The resolution calls on the Russian authorities to refrain from maintaining ties with the breakaway regions "in any manner that would constitute a challenge to the sovereignty of Georgia" and also urges Russia "to abide by OSCE standards and generally accepted international norms with respect to the threat or use of force to resolve conflicts in relations with other participating States."<ref>[http://www.civilgeorgia.ge/eng/article.php?id=18673 OSCE PA Concerned over Russian Moves] Civil Georgia. 3 July 2008. {{dead link|date=October 2011}}</ref>

On 9 July 2012, the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly passed a resolution at its annual session in [[Monaco]], underlining Georgia's territorial integrity and referring to breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia as "occupied territories". The resolution "urges the Government and the Parliament of the Russian Federation, as well as the de facto authorities of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, to allow the European Union Monitoring Mission unimpeded access to the occupied territories." It also says that the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly is "concerned about the humanitarian situation of the displaced persons both in Georgia and in the occupied territories of Abkhazia, Georgia and South Ossetia, Georgia, as well as the denial of the right of return to their places of living." The Assembly is the parliamentary dimension of the OSCE with 320 lawmakers from the organisation's 57 participating states, including Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oscepa.org/publications/all-documents/doc_download/1258-final-declaration-english |title=Soares to visit the Caucasus next week |author=Admin |work=oscepa.org |access-date=24 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714035640/http://www.oscepa.org/publications/all-documents/doc_download/1258-final-declaration-english |archive-date=14 July 2012 }}</ref>

===Law on occupied territories of Georgia===
{{main|Occupied territories of Georgia}}
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev in Abkhazia August 2010-7.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Dmitry Medvedev]] (centre, with dark tie) visited the Russian military base in Gudauta in 2010]]
In late October 2008 President Saakashvili signed into law legislation on the occupied territories passed by the Georgian Parliament. The law covers the breakaway regions of Abkhazia and [[Tskhinvali]] (territories of former South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smr.gov.ge/docs/doc216.pdf |title=The Law of Georgia on Occupied Territories |publisher=[[State Ministry for Reconciliation and Civic Equality of Georgia]] |date=23 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140624083638/http://www.smr.gov.ge/docs/doc216.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.venice.coe.int/docs/2009/CDL(2009)004-e.asp |title=CDL(2009)004: Law on occupied territories of Georgia |publisher=Venice.coe.int |date=23 October 2008 |access-date=18 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213142423/http://www.venice.coe.int/docs/2009/CDL%282009%29004-e.asp |archive-date=13 February 2012}}</ref> The law spells out restrictions on free movement and economic activity in the territories. In particular, according to the law, foreign citizens should enter the two breakaway regions only through Georgia proper. Entry into Abkhazia should be carried out from the [[Zugdidi Municipality]] and into South Ossetia from the [[Gori Municipality]]. The major road leading to South Ossetia from the rest of Georgia passes through the Gori District.<ref name=georgia-law>{{cite web |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19868&search= |title=Bill on Occupied Territories Signed into Law |publisher=Civil.ge |date=1 July 2001 |access-date=18 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130194429/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19868&search= |archive-date=30 January 2012 }}</ref>

The legislation, however, also lists "special" cases in which entry into the breakaway regions will not be regarded as illegal. It stipulates that a special permit on entry into the breakaway regions can be issued if the trip there "serves Georgia's state interests; peaceful resolution of the conflict; de-occupation or humanitarian purposes." The law also bans any type of economic activity – entrepreneurial or non-entrepreneurial, if such activities require permits, licences or registration in accordance with Georgian legislation. It also bans air, sea and railway communications and international transit via the regions, mineral exploration and money transfers. The provision covering economic activities is retroactive, going back to 1990.<ref name=georgia-law/>

The law says that the Russian Federation – the state which has carried out military occupation – is fully responsible for the violation of human rights in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The Russian Federation, according to the document, is also responsible for compensation of material and moral damage inflicted on Georgian citizens, stateless persons and foreign citizens, who are in Georgia and enter the occupied territories with appropriate permits. The law also says that de facto state agencies and officials operating in the occupied territories are regarded by Georgia as illegal. The law will remain in force until "the full restoration of Georgian jurisdiction" over the breakaway regions is realised.<ref name=georgia-law/>

===Status-neutral passports===
{{see also|Abkhazian passport}}

According to a 2006 report, Georgia considers all residents of Abkhazia its citizens, while they see themselves as Abkhaz citizens.<ref name="Abkhazia Today"/>

In the summer of 2011, the Parliament of Georgia adopted a package of legislative amendments providing for the issuance of neutral identification and travel documents to residents of Abkhazia and the former South Ossetian autonomous province of Georgia. The document allows travelling abroad as well as enjoying social benefits existing in Georgia. The new neutral identification and travel documents were called "neutral passports".<ref name="Neutral Passports">{{cite news |url=http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2146299.html |work=Trend.AZ |title=Romania recognized neutral Georgian passports for Abkhazian and South Ossetian residents |date=2 May 2013 |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223050654/http://en.trend.az/news/politics/2146299.html |archive-date=23 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The status-neutral passports do not carry state symbols of Georgia.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=22 November 2020 |title=UNPO: Victims of Geopolitics: Young Generations in Abkhazia Struggle with Lack of Travel and Education Opportunities Abroad |url=https://unpo.org/article/22118 |access-date=11 October 2021 |website=[[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]] |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034033/https://unpo.org/article/22118 |url-status=live }}</ref> Abkhazia's foreign minister, [[Viacheslav Chirikba]], criticised the status-neutral passports and called their introduction "unacceptable".<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2012 |title=Clinton Wades Into Georgia Documents Row |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgian-separatist-region-officials-slam-neutral-status-travel-documents/24605470.html |access-date=11 October 2021 |website=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034033/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgian-separatist-region-officials-slam-neutral-status-travel-documents/24605470.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Some Abkhazian residents with Russian passports were being denied [[Schengen Area|Schengen visas]].<ref name=":2" />

As of May 2013, neutral documents have been recognised by Japan, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, the United States, Bulgaria, Poland, Israel, Estonia and Romania.<ref name="Neutral Passports"/>

According to Russian media, the President of the Republic of Abkhazia, [[Alexander Ankvab]] threatened international organisations that accepted neutral passports, saying during a meeting with the leadership of the foreign ministry that "international organizations that suggest the so-called neutral passports, will leave Abkhazia."<ref>{{cite web |publisher=DFWATCH STAFF |url=http://dfwatch.net/abkhazian-leader-opposed-to-neutral-passports-25286 |title=Abkhazian leader opposed to neutral passports |date=19 January 2012 |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222174812/http://dfwatch.net/abkhazian-leader-opposed-to-neutral-passports-25286 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Russian involvement===
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev 17 September 2008-3.jpg|thumb|The leaders of Abkhazia, Russia and South Ossetia, shortly after the [[2008 South Ossetia War|2008 war]]. Left to right: South Ossetian President [[Eduard Kokoity]]; [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Dmitry Medvedev]]; [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)|Russian Foreign Minister]] [[Sergey Lavrov]]; Abkhazian President [[Sergei Bagapsh]].]]
During the [[Abkhazia conflict|Georgian–Abkhaz conflict]], the Russian authorities and [[Russian Armed Forces|military]] supplied logistical and military aid to the separatist side.<ref name="hrwreport"/> Today, Russia still maintains a strong political and military influence over separatist rule in Abkhazia.<!--<ref name="mosnews">{{cite web |url=http://mosnews.com/news/2006/07/21/luzhkabkhaz.shtml |website=mosnews.com |title=news/2006/07/21/luzhkabkhaz |access-date=4 October 2018 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20061130030021/http://mosnews.com/news/2006/07/21/luzhkabkhaz.shtml |archive-date=30 November 2006 }}</ref>--> Russia has also issued passports to the citizens of Abkhazia since 2000 (as Abkhazian passports cannot be used for international travel) and subsequently paid them retirement pensions and other monetary benefits. More than 80% of the Abkhazian population had received Russian passports by 2006. As Russian citizens living abroad, Abkhazians do not pay Russian taxes or serve in the Russian Army.<ref name="crisisgroup">[https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/abkhazia-today Abkhazia Today.] ''The [[International Crisis Group]] Europe Report N°176, 15 September 2006, page 10''. Retrieved on 30 May 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510033711/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?l=1&id=4377 |date=10 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite interview |url=http://mk.ru/blogs/idmk/2006/07/13/mk-daily/79039/ |last=Shamba |first=Sergey |subject-link=Sergey Shamba |interviewer=[[Moskovskij Komsomolets]] Press Centre |script-title=ru:Стенограмма пресс-конференции в "МК": Министра иностранных дел Республики Абхазия Сергея Мироновича Шамба |trans-title=Transcript of press conference at "MK": Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Abkhazia Sergey Shamba |language=ru |work=[[Moskovskij Komsomolets]] |date=6 July 2006 |access-date=13 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013095901/http://mk.ru/blogs/idmk/2006/07/13/mk-daily/79039/ |archive-date=13 October 2007}}</ref> About 53,000 Abkhazian passports have been issued as of May 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/president/press/news/detail.php?ID=5972&phrase_id=12832/ |script-title=ru:К концу 2007 года 90 процентов граждан Абхазии должны получить национальные паспорта – Президент |trans-title=By the end of 2007, 90 percent of the citizens of Abkhazia should receive national passports – The President |language=ru |publisher=Abkhaziagov.org |date=29 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928080939/http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/president/press/news/detail.php?ID=5972&phrase_id=12832%2F |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref>

Moscow, at certain times, hinted that it might recognise Abkhazia and South Ossetia when Western countries recognised the independence of [[Kosovo]], suggesting that they had created a [[Kosovo independence precedent|precedent]]. Following Kosovo's declaration of independence, the Russian parliament released a joint statement reading: "Now that the situation in Kosovo has become an international precedent, Russia should take into account the Kosovo scenario... when considering ongoing territorial conflicts."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unomig.org/media/headlines/?id=10173&y=2008&m=02&d=21 |title=Recognition may come 'this year', South Ossetia's leaders says – Report |publisher=[[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia]] |date=21 February 2008 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531165158/http://www.unomig.org/media/headlines/?id=10173&y=2008&m=02&d=21 |archive-date=31 May 2008}}</ref> Initially Russia continued to delay recognition of both of these republics. However, on 16 April 2008, the outgoing Russian president [[Vladimir Putin]] instructed his government to establish official ties with South Ossetia and Abkhazia, leading to Georgia's condemnation of what it described as an attempt at "de facto annexation"<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7350442.stm Georgia angered by Russian move] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420054434/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7350442.stm |date=20 April 2008 }}. BBC News. 16 April 2008.</ref> and criticism from the [[European Union]], NATO, and several Western governments.<ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/detail.php?id=17617 In Quotes: International Reaction to Russia's Abkhaz, S.Ossetian Move]. Civil Georgia. 19 April 2008. {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

Later in April 2008, Russia accused Georgia of trying to exploit NATO support in order to control Abkhazia by force and announced it would increase its military presence in the region, pledging to retaliate militarily against Georgia's efforts. The Georgian Prime Minister [[Lado Gurgenidze]] said Georgia will treat any additional troops in Abkhazia as "aggressors".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7374546.stm Georgia-Russia tensions ramped up.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815023445/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7374546.stm |date=15 August 2008 }}. [[The BBC News]]. 30 April 2008.</ref>

In response to the [[Russo-Georgian War]], the [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly of Russia]] called an extraordinary session for 25 August 2008 to discuss recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4572733.ece |title=Russia to recognise breakaway region's independence |work=The Times |date=20 August 2008 |access-date=20 August 2008 |location=London |first=Tony |last=Halpin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080904004911/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4572733.ece |archive-date=4 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Following a unanimous resolution that was passed by both houses of the parliament calling on the Russian president to recognise independence of the breakaway republics,<ref>{{cite news |first1=Charles |last1=Clover |author2=Isabel Gorst |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/b176fd64-7292-11dd-983b-0000779fd18c,dwp_uuid=70662e7c-3027-11da-ba9f-00000e2511c8.html |title=Duma backs South Ossetia independence |newspaper=Financial Times |date=25 August 2008 |access-date=25 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604190549/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/b176fd64-7292-11dd-983b-0000779fd18c%2Cdwp_uuid%3D70662e7c-3027-11da-ba9f-00000e2511c8.html |archive-date=4 June 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> Russian president, [[Dmitry Medvedev]], officially recognised both on 26 August 2008.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/7582181.stm BBC News: "Russia recognises Georgian rebels"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830041857/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/7582181.stm |date=30 August 2008 }}, 26 August 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/228066,russia-recognizes-independence-of-georgias-rebel-regions--2nd-update.html Russia recognizes independence of Georgia's rebel regions], ''Earth Times'', 26 August 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2008. {{Webarchive |url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171016223523/http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/228066,russia-recognizes-independence-of-georgias-rebel-regions--2nd-update.html |date=16 October 2017 }}</ref> Russian recognition<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/12661/ |title='West Ignored Us on Kosovo', says Medvedev |publisher=Balkaninsight.com |date=27 August 2008 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20090605205547/http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/main/news/12661/ |archive-date=5 June 2009}}</ref> was condemned by [[NATO]] nations, OSCE and [[European Council]] nations<ref name="civil.ge">{{cite web |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19301 |title=Scheffer 'Rejects' Russia's Move, Civil.ge, 26 August 2008 |publisher=Civil.ge |date=1 July 2001 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607104542/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19301 |archive-date=7 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name="civil">{{cite web |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19300 |title=CoE, PACE Chairs Condemn Russia's Move, Civil Georgia, 26 August 2008 |publisher=Civil.ge |date=1 July 2001 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607101230/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19300 |archive-date=7 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name="civil2">{{cite web |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19296 |title=OSCE Chair Condemns Russia's Recognition of Abkhazia, S. Ossetia, Civil Georgia, 26 August 2008 |publisher=Civil.ge |date=1 July 2001 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607105557/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19296 |archive-date=7 June 2011 }}</ref><ref name="news.bbc.co.uk">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7583164.stm |title=West condemns Russia over Georgia, BBC, 26 August 2008 |work=BBC News |date=26 August 2008 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420213422/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7583164.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/08/27/russia.georgia/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830003832/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/08/27/russia.georgia/index.html |title=Tensions build as U.S. ship arrives in Georgia, CNN, 29 August 2008 |website=[[CNN]] |archive-date=30 August 2008}}</ref> due to "violation of [[territorial integrity]] and international law".<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/><ref>[[Civil.ge]], [http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19300 CoE, PACE Chairs Condemn Russia's Move] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607101230/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19300 |date=7 June 2011 }}, 26 August 2008</ref> UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] stated that sovereign states have to decide themselves whether they want to recognise the independence of disputed regions.<ref>[https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=27829&Cr=georgia&Cr1= Resolving Georgian crisis may be harder after Russian recognition move] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215024611/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=27829&Cr=georgia&Cr1= |date=15 February 2017 }}, UN News Centre.</ref>

Russia has started work on the establishment of a naval base in Ochamchire by dredging the coast to allow the passage of their larger naval vessels.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.paltelegraph.com/world/asia-news/2139-russias-build-up-in-the-black-sea |title=Russia's build-up in the Black Sea |newspaper=The Palestine Telegraph |date=6 September 2009 |access-date=30 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723125852/http://www.paltelegraph.com/world/asia-news/2139-russias-build-up-in-the-black-sea |archive-date=23 July 2011}}</ref> As a response to the [[Georgian sea blockade of Abkhazia]], in which the Georgian coast guard had been detaining ships heading to and from Abkhazia, Russia warned Georgia against ship seizures and said that a unit of Russian guard boats would provide security for ships bound to Abkhazia.<ref name="civil1">[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=21423 Russian Warns Georgia Against Ship Seizures] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20181116062422/https://old.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=21423 archive]). Civil Georgia. 3 September 2009</ref>

The extent of Russian influence in Abkhazia has caused some locals to say Abkhazia is under full Russian control, but they still prefer Russian influence over Georgian.<ref name=Perils>{{cite news |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/Abkhazia_The_Perils_Of_Independence/1758008.html |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |title=Abkhazia and the Perils of Independence |author=Brian Whitmore |date=19 June 2009 |access-date=4 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903205429/http://www.rferl.org/content/Abkhazia_The_Perils_Of_Independence/1758008.html |archive-date=3 September 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=SpyRepublic>{{cite news |url=http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/18/how-russia-s-fsb-colonized-abkhazia.html |title=The Republic of Spies: How Russia's FSB Colonized Abkhazia |author=Anna Nemtsova |date=17 August 2010 |publisher=Newsweek |access-date=4 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100902053959/http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/18/how-russia-s-fsb-colonized-abkhazia.html |archive-date=2 September 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=PanIntoFire>{{cite news |url=http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100826/FOREIGN/708259882/1140 |publisher=The National (UAE news organization) |author=Carl Schreck |title=Abkhazia: From Georgia's Pan into Russia's Fire |date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222004533/http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20100826%2FFOREIGN%2F708259882%2F1140 |archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref name=InterestsDiverge>{{cite news |url=http://georgiandaily.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18839&Itemid=130 |title=More Disagreements Emerge Between Abkhaz and Russian Interests |author=Valery Dzutsev |date=11 June 2010 |work=Eurasia Daily Monitor |publisher=Georgian Daily |access-date=4 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722072823/http://georgiandaily.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18839&Itemid=130 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===International involvement===
[[File:Российско-абхазская граница.jpg|thumb|Border checkpoint on the [[Psou River]]]]
The UN has played various roles during the conflict and peace process: a military role through its observer mission ([[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UNOMIG]]); dual diplomatic roles through the Security Council and the appointment of a special envoy, succeeded by a special representative to the secretary-general; a humanitarian role ([[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] and [[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|UNOCHA]]); a development role ([[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]]); a human rights role ([[UNHCHR]]); and a low-key capacity and confidence-building role ([[United Nations Volunteers|UNV]]). The UN's position has been that there will be no forcible change in international borders. Any settlement must be freely negotiated and based on autonomy for Abkhazia legitimised by referendum under international observation once the multi-ethnic population has returned.<ref>Resolutions 849, 854, 858, 876, 881 and 892 adopted by the UN Security Council</ref>

The OSCE has increasingly engaged in dialogue with officials and civil society representatives in Abkhazia, especially from [[Non-governmental organization|non-governmental organisations]] (NGO)s and the [[Mass media in Abkhazia|media]], regarding human dimension standards in the region and is considering a presence in Gali. The OSCE expressed concern and condemnation over ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia during the 1994 [[Budapest]] Summit decision<ref>From the Resolution of the OSCE Budapest Summit, 6 December 1994 [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/oscelisb.htm Lisbon OSCE Summit Declaration] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210235309/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/oscelisb.htm |date=10 February 2007 }}</ref> and later at the Lisbon Summit Declaration in 1996.<ref>Lisbon Summit Declaration of the OSCE, 2–3 December 1996</ref>

The US rejects the unilateral secession of Abkhazia and urges its integration into Georgia as an autonomous unit. In 1998 the US announced its readiness to allocate up to $15&nbsp;million for rehabilitation of infrastructure in the Gali region if substantial progress is made in the peace process. [[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]] has already funded some humanitarian initiatives for Abkhazia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-27 |title=USAID/Georgia Representatives Visit Georgia’s Abkhazia Region to Demonstrate Support for Development and Conflict Resolution {{!}} News {{!}} Georgia |url=https://www.usaid.gov/georgia/news/usaidgeorgia-representatives-visit-georgias-abkhazia-region-demonstrate-support-development-and-conflict-resolution |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=U.S. Agency for International Development |language=en}}</ref>

On 22 August 2006, Senator [[Richard Lugar]], then visiting Georgia's capital Tbilisi, joined Georgian politicians in criticism of the Russian peacekeeping mission, stating that "the U.S. administration supports the Georgian government's insistence on the withdrawal of Russian peacekeepers from the conflict zones in Abkhazia and the Tskhinvali district".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://mosnews.com/news/2006/08/22/lugarspeaks.shtml |title=U.S. Senator Urges Russian Peacekeepers' Withdrawal From Georgian Breakaway Republics |website=Mosnews.com |date=22 August 2006 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20061130030040/http://mosnews.com/news/2006/08/22/lugarspeaks.shtml |archive-date=30 November 2006}}</ref>

On 5 October 2006, [[Javier Solana]], the [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy|High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] of the [[European Union]], ruled out the possibility of replacing the Russian peacekeepers with the EU force.<ref>[http://www.isn.ethz.ch/news/sw/details.cfm?ID=16756 ''Solana fears Kosovo 'precedent' for Abkhazia, South Ossetia.'' (International Relations and Security Network)] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611224159/http://www.isn.ethz.ch/news/sw/details.cfm?ID=16756 |date=11 June 2008 }}.</ref> <!--However, the Georgian parliament prepared for the vote in October 2006 which will demand the complete withdrawal of Russian peacekeepers from Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=13827 |title=Civil.Ge – Stop 'Hostile Actions,' Kremlin Official Tells Tbilisi |author=Civil Georgia |work=civil.ge |access-date=10 October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008122922/http://civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=13827 |archive-date=8 October 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref>--> On 10 October 2006, EU South Caucasus envoy [[Peter Semneby]] noted that "Russia's actions in the [[2006 Georgian–Russian espionage controversy|Georgia spy row]] have damaged its credibility as a neutral peacekeeper in the EU's Black Sea neighbourhood."<ref>[http://euobserver.com/24/22622 ''Russia 'not neutral' in Black Sea conflict, EU says''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930031041/http://euobserver.com/24/22622 |date=30 September 2007 }}, EUobserver, 10 October 2006.</ref>

On 13 October 2006, the UN Security Council unanimously adopted a [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1716|resolution]], based on a Group of Friends of the Secretary-General draft, extending the [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UNOMIG]] mission until 15 April 2007. Acknowledging that the "new and tense situation" resulted, at least in part, from the Georgian special forces' operation in the upper Kodori Valley, the resolution urged the country to ensure that no troops unauthorised by the [[agreement on a Cease-fire and Separation of Forces|Moscow ceasefire agreement]] were present in that area. It urged the leadership of the Abkhaz side to address seriously the need for a dignified, secure return of refugees and internally displaced persons and to reassure the local population in the Gali district that their residency rights and identity will be respected. The Georgian side is "once again urged to address seriously legitimate Abkhaz security concerns, to avoid steps that could be seen as threatening and to refrain from militant rhetoric and provocative actions, especially in upper Kodori Valley."<ref>{{cite web |title=United Nations Security Council Resolution 1716 |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8851.doc.htm |website=UN |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017030753/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8851.doc.htm |archive-date=17 October 2006}}</ref>

[[File:Caucasus regions map2.svg|thumb|The breakaway republics of Abkhazia and [[South Ossetia]] within the Caucasus region]]
Calling on both parties to follow up on dialogue initiatives, it further urged them to comply fully with all previous agreements regarding non-violence and confidence-building, in particular those concerning the separation of forces. Regarding the disputed role of the peacekeepers from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Council stressed the importance of close, effective cooperation between UNOMIG and that force and looked to all sides to continue to extend the necessary cooperation to them. At the same time, the document reaffirmed the "commitment of all Member States to the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognised borders".<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2006/sc8851.doc.htm ''Security Council extends Georgia Mission until 15 April 2007''] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310121412/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8851.doc.htm |date=10 March 2014 }}, The UN Department of Public Information, 13 October 2006.</ref>

The [[HALO Trust]], an international non-profit organisation that specialises in the removal of the debris of war, has been active in Abkhazia since 1999 and has completed the removal of landmines in Sukhumi and Gali districts. It declared Abkhazia "mine free" in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.halotrust.org/where-we-work/georgia |title=Our work in Georgia, what we do and where – The HALO Trust |work=The HALO Trust |access-date=10 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321042316/http://www.halotrust.org/where-we-work/georgia |archive-date=21 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

France-based international NGO [[Première-Urgence]] has been implementing a food security programme to support the vulnerable populations affected by the frozen conflict for almost 10 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.premiere-urgence.org/ |title=Première-Urgence NGO, France |publisher=Premiere-urgence.org |date=16 December 2007 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213082739/http://www.premiere-urgence.org/ |archive-date=13 February 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Abkhazia-Georgia: Première Urgence is implementing a food security programme |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/georgia/abkhazia-georgia-premi%C3%A8re-urgence-implementing-food-security-programme |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326034545/https://reliefweb.int/report/georgia/abkhazia-georgia-premi%C3%A8re-urgence-implementing-food-security-programme |url-status=live }}</ref>

Russia does not allow the [[European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia]] (EUMM) to enter Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thecommentator.com/article/1272/georgia_and_russia_the_occupation_too_many_have_forgotten |title=Georgia and Russia: The occupation too many have forgotten |author=Luke Coffey |date=1 June 2010 |access-date=28 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220181039/http://www.thecommentator.com/article/1272/georgia_and_russia_the_occupation_too_many_have_forgotten |archive-date=20 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Recognition===
{{main|Foreign relations of Abkhazia}}
[[File:Евгений Шевчук и Александр Анкваб.jpg|thumb|Abkhazian President [[Alexander Ankvab]] with Transnistrian President [[Yevgeny Shevchuk]] in September 2013]]
The following is a list of political entities that formally recognise Abkhazia.

'''UN member states'''
* {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Russia]] recognised Abkhazia on 26 August 2008 after the [[Russo-Georgian War]].<ref name="chinadaily.com.cn">{{cite web |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-09/06/content_7005202.htm |title=Russia welcomes Nicaragua's recognition of South Ossetia, Abkhazia |work=China Daily |date=6 September 2008 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528184642/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-09/06/content_7005202.htm |archive-date=28 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|NCA}} [[Nicaragua]] recognised Abkhazia on 5 September 2008.<ref name="ncrg_recognition">{{cite web |url=http://www.cancilleria.gob.ni/publicaciones/r_abjasia.pdf |title=Decreto No. 47-2008: El Presidente de la República de Nicaragua |trans-title=Decree No. 47-2008: The President of the Republic of Nicaragua |language=es |publisher=Gobierno de Reconciliación y Unidad Nacional |date=3 September 2009 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909190405/http://www.cancilleria.gob.ni/publicaciones/r_abjasia.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2008}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|VEN}} [[Venezuela]] recognised Abkhazia on 10 September 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.interfax.ru/russia/99801 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629141046/http://www.interfax.ru/news.asp?id=99801 |title=Âåíåñóýëà ïðèçíàåò íåçàâèñèìîñòü Àáõàçèè è Þæíîé Îñåòèè |archive-date=29 June 2011 |website=Interfax.ru}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Nauru}} [[Nauru]] recognised Abkhazia on 15 December 2009.<ref name="nytimes_nauru">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/16/world/europe/16georgia.html |title=Abkhazia Is Recognised – by Nauru |date=15 December 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 December 2009 |first=Ellen |last=Barry |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130305142438/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/16/world/europe/16georgia.html |archive-date=5 March 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|SYR}} [[Syria]] recognised Abkhazia on 29 May 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |title=Georgia Severs Relations With Syria For Recognizing Abkhazia, South Ossetia |work=rferl.org |date=29 May 2018 |access-date=29 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530034717/https://www.rferl.org/a/georgia-syria-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-abkhazia-south-ossetia/29257063.html |archive-date=30 May 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Partially recognised and unrecognised territories'''
* {{flagicon|South Ossetia}} [[South Ossetia]] recognised Abkhazia on 17 November 2006.<ref name="recognition1"/>
* {{flagicon|Transnistria}} [[Transnistria]] recognised Abkhazia on 17 November 2006.<ref name="recognition1"/>

'''Former recognition'''
* {{flagicon|Vanuatu}} [[Vanuatu]] [[Abkhazia–Vanuatu relations|recognised]] Abkhazia on 23 May 2011,<ref name="vanuatu">{{cite web |url=http://www.governmentofvanuatu.gov.vu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=127:vanuatus-recognition-to-the-republic-of-abkhazia&catid=70:archived-news&Itemid=1 |title=Vanuatu's recognition to the Republic of Abkhazia |date=7 October 2011 |access-date=30 October 2012 |publisher=[[Government of Vanuatu]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218140303/http://www.governmentofvanuatu.gov.vu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=127:vanuatus-recognition-to-the-republic-of-abkhazia&catid=70:archived-news&Itemid=1 |archive-date=18 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> but withdrew recognition on 20 May 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-20/georgia-says-vanuatu-has-withdrawn-recognition-of-abkhazia.html |title=Georgia Says Vanuatu Has Withdrawn Recognition of Abkhazia |date=20 May 2013 |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] |access-date=5 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006203722/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-20/georgia-says-vanuatu-has-withdrawn-recognition-of-abkhazia.html |archive-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Tuvalu}} [[Tuvalu]] recognised Abkhazia on 18 September 2011, but withdrew recognition on 31 March 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=59&info_id=17401 |title=Statement of the Georgian Foreign Ministry regarding the establishment of diplomatic and consular relations |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia |location=Tbilisi |date=31 March 2014 |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331144318/http://mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=59&info_id=17401 |archive-date=31 March 2014}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|Artsakh}} [[Republic of Artsakh|Artsakh]] recognised Abkhazia on 17 November 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abjasia.org/recognition.html |script-title=ru:Cтраны, признавшие независимость Республики Абхазия |trans-title=Countries that have recognized the independence of the Republic of Abkhazia |language=ru |work=Embassy of the Republic of Abkhazia in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela |access-date=9 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130218144841/http://www.abjasia.org/recognition.html |archive-date=18 February 2013}}</ref> Self-proclaimed [[Republic of Artsakh]] dissolved in 2023.

===Proposals on entry into Russian Federation===
Since the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|1992-1993 War in Abkhazia]], there have been several proposals voiced by the [[Government of the Republic of Abkhazia|separatist Abkhaz government]] and the [[Government of Russia|Russian government]] for Abkhazia to become part of the [[Russian Federation]], which have been opposed by the [[Government of Georgia (country)|Georgian government]] and the [[Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia|government-in-exile of Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia]]. One of the early proposals was voiced before the war, in March 1989, when the Abkhaz ethno-nationalsit organization [[Aidgylara]] issued the Lykhny Appeal, calling for Abkhazia to become part of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]]. This is thought to be a starting point for the [[Abkhazia conflict]] between the separatists and local Georgian population in Abkhazia. After the war, on 18 November 1993, a month after its ending and [[ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia]], the leader of Abkhazia [[Vladislav Ardzinba]] proposed to hold a referendum to join the Russian Federation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/469f388ca.html|title=Chronology for Abkhazians in Georgia|date=2004|publisher=Refworld|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref> In 2001, a similar desire was voiced by Abkhazia's Prime Minister [[Anri Jergenia]], who said that Abkhazia was preparing to join Russia and that it was going to hold a referendum on that issue.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2001/10/18/Abkhaz-PM-Sukhumi-to-join-Russia/90981003413157/|title=Abkhaz PM: Sukhumi to join Russia|date=18 October 2001|publisher=[[United Press International]]|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>

In October 2022, in an interview to the Russian TV, President of Abkhazia [[Aslan Bzhania]] declared Abkhazia's readiness to host a Russian navy and join the Russia-Belarus [[Union State]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://civil.ge/archives/562121|title= Bzhania Readies to Host the Russian Navy, Wants to Join the Union State |date=5 October 2023|publisher=[[Civil Georgia]]|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref> However, the proposal has been criticized as impractical since [[Belarus]] does not recognizes Abkhazia as a sovereign state and considers it to be part of Georgia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jam-news.net/abkhazia-in-the-union-state/|title= Abkhazia's entry into the Union State: a "diversionary maneuver" or a no alternative option?|publisher=Jam News|date=17 November 2023}}</ref>

In August 2023, Deputy Chair of [[Security Council of Russia|Russian Security Council]] [[Dmitry Medvedev]] also voiced support for these proposals, accusing Georgia of "escalating tensions" by its potential membership to the [[NATO]], and saying that there were "good reasons" for Abkhazia and [[South Ossetia]] to join Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/russia-annex-georgia-breakaway-regions-south-ossetia-abkhazia-dmitry-medvedev/|title=Russia threatens to annex Georgia's breakaway regions|date=23 August 2023|publisher=[[Politico]]|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref> Medvedev also mocked Georgia's desire to restore its territorial integrity, saying that "Georgia can only be united as part of Russia".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgiatoday.ge/medvedev-georgia-can-only-be-united-as-part-of-russia/|title=Medvedev Post Claims Georgia Can Only Be United as Part of Russia, Georgia Says its a "Warning"|date=4 August 2022 |publisher=Georgia Today|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>

Georgia criticized the proposals for Abkhazia's entry into the Russian Federation and Union State. In 2014, Georgia's Foreign Ministry issued a statement, calling the Russia-Abkhazia treaty on integration a ''de facto'' annexation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://agenda.ge/en/news/2014/2708|title=Georgia calls Russia-Abkhazia treaty a "de-facto annexation" of its territory|date=27 November 2014|publisher=Agenda.ge|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>

==Geography and climate  ==
{{main|Geography of Abkhazia}}
[[File:Agepsta.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Agepsta]] as seen from [[Aibga Ridge]]]]
[[File:რიწის ტბა.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Ritsa]]]]
Abkhazia covers an area of about {{cvt|8665|km²|0}} at the western end of Georgia.<ref name=EB/><ref>{{cite web |first=David |last=Cutler |url=http://reliefweb.int/report/georgia/factbox-key-facts-georgias-breakaway-abkhazia |title=Factbox – Key facts on Georgia's breakaway Abkhazia |agency=Reuters |publisher=reliefweb.int |date=29 April 2008 |access-date=29 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129233638/http://reliefweb.int/report/georgia/factbox-key-facts-georgias-breakaway-abkhazia |archive-date=29 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1358/Abkhazia |title=Abkhazia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=7 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602193245/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1358/Abkhazia |archive-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Caucasus Mountains]] to the north and northeast separate Abkhazia and the Russian Federation. To the east and southeast, Abkhazia is bounded by the Georgian region of [[Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti]]; and on the south and southwest by the Black Sea.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Abkhazia is diverse geographically with lowlands stretching to the extremely mountainous north. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range runs along the region's northern border, with its spurs{{spaced ndash}}the Gagra, [[Bzyb Range|Bzyb]] and Kodori ranges{{spaced ndash}}dividing the area into a number of deep, well-watered valleys. The highest peaks of Abkhazia are in the northeast and east and several exceed {{convert|4000|m|ft|0}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]]. Abkhazia's landscape ranges from coastal forests and citrus plantations to permanent snows and [[glaciers]] in the north of the region. Although Abkhazia's complex topographic setting has spared most of the territory from significant human development, its cultivated fertile lands produce tea, tobacco, wine and fruits, a mainstay of the local agricultural sector.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

{{Anchor|Rivers}}Abkhazia is richly irrigated by small rivers originating in the Caucasus Mountains. Chief of these are: [[Kodori River|Kodori]], [[Bzyb River|Bzyb]], [[Ghalidzga River|Ghalidzga]], and [[Gumista River|Gumista]]. The [[Psou River]] separates the region from Russia, and the [[Inguri River|Inguri]] serves as a boundary between Abkhazia and Georgia proper. There are several [[periglacial]] and [[Volcanic crater lake|crater]] lakes in mountainous Abkhazia. [[Lake Ritsa]] is the most important of them.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

[[File:Ridge view from pitsunda cape.jpg|thumb|left|View from [[Pitsunda]] cape]]
Because of Abkhazia's proximity to the Black Sea and the shield of the Caucasus Mountains, the region's climate is very mild. The coastal areas of the republic have a subtropical climate, where the average annual temperature in most regions is around {{convert|15|°C}}, and the average January temperature remains above freezing.<ref name=EB/> The climate at higher elevations varies from maritime mountainous to cold and summerless. Also, due to its position on the windward slopes of the Caucasus, Abkhazia receives high amounts of [[precipitation]],<ref name=EB/> though humidity decreases further inland. The annual precipitation varies from {{cvt|1200|-|1400|mm|in|1}}<ref name=EB/> along the coast to {{cvt|1700|-|3500|mm|in|1}} in the higher mountainous areas. The mountains of Abkhazia receive significant amounts of snow.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

The world's deepest known cave, [[Veryovkina Cave]], is located in Abkhazia's western Caucasus mountains. The latest survey (as of March 2018) has measured the vertical extent of this cave system as {{convert|2212|m|ft|0}} between its highest and lowest explored points.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

The lowland regions used to be covered by swaths of [[oak]], [[beech]], and [[hornbeam]], which have since been cleared.<ref name=EB/>

There are two main entrances into Abkhazia. The southern entrance is at the [[Inguri]] bridge, a short distance from the city of [[Zugdidi]]. The northern entrance ("Psou") is in the town of [[Leselidze (town)|Leselidze]]. Owing to the situation with a recognition controversy, many foreign governments advise their citizens against travelling to Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/georgia |title=Travel advice by country: Georgia |work=United Kingdom [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] |access-date=28 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128185700/https://www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/georgia |archive-date=28 November 2016 |url-status=live}}<br />{{cite web |url=https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country/georgia.html |title=Passports & International Travel: Country Information: Georgia: Embassy Messages |work=[[U.S. Department of State]] |access-date=28 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203082432/https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country/georgia.html |archive-date=3 December 2016 |url-status=live}}<br />{{cite web |url=https://www.safetravel.govt.nz/georgia |title=Official advice for New Zealanders living and travelling overseas: Georgia |work=New Zealand Government via safetravel.govt.nz |access-date=28 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128195115/https://www.safetravel.govt.nz/georgia |archive-date=28 November 2016 |url-status=live}}<br />{{cite web |url=http://smartraveller.gov.au/Countries/europe/eastern/Pages/georgia.aspx |title=Travel advice: Georgia |work=[[Australian Government]], Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade via smartraveller.gov.au |access-date=28 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128041054/http://smartraveller.gov.au/Countries/europe/eastern/Pages/georgia.aspx |archive-date=28 November 2016 |url-status=live}}<br />{{cite web |url=https://www.dfa.ie/travel/travel-advice/a-z-list-of-countries/georgia/ |title=Travel advice: Georgia |work=Irish Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=28 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128041920/https://www.dfa.ie/travel/travel-advice/a-z-list-of-countries/georgia/ |archive-date=28 November 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to President Raul Khajimba, over the summer of 2015, thousands of tourists visited Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vz.ru/news/2015/8/27/763607.html |script-title=ru:Число туристов в Абхазии побило рекорды советских времен |trans-title=The number of tourists in Abkhazia broke the records of Soviet times |language=ru |publisher=vz.ru |date=27 August 2015 |access-date=22 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411060240/http://www.vz.ru/news/2015/8/27/763607.html |archive-date=11 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2023}}

==Politics and government==
===Republic of Abkhazia===
{{main|Government of the Republic of Abkhazia|Politics of Abkhazia|Elections in Abkhazia}}
Abkhazia is a [[President (government title)|presidential]] [[republic]], and the second elected [[president of Abkhazia]] was [[Sergei Bagapsh]]. Bagapsh came to power following the deeply divisive [[2004 Abkhazian presidential election|October 2004 presidential election]]. The next election was held on 12 December 2009. Bagapsh was re-elected as president with 59.4% of the total vote.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/14/world/europe/14abkhazia.html |title=President of Abkhazia Re-elected by Wide Margin |last=Barry |first=Ellen |date=13 December 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=14 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508202706/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/14/world/europe/14abkhazia.html |archive-date=8 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Alexander Ankvab]], his vice-president, was appointed acting president after the former president's death on 29 May 2011<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-13587660 |title=Abkhazia President Sergei Bagapsh dies at 62 |date=29 May 2011 |publisher=BBC |access-date=29 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529112008/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-13587660 |archive-date=29 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> until winning election in his own right later on [[2011 Abkhazian presidential election|26 August 2011]].{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Legislative powers are vested in the [[People's Assembly of Abkhazia|People's Assembly]], which consists of 35 elected members. The last [[2022 Abkhazian parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] were held in March 2022. Ethnicities other than Abkhaz (Armenians, Russians and Georgians) are claimed to be under-represented in the Assembly.<ref name="Today"/>

Most refugees from the 1992–1993 war (mainly ethnic Georgians) have not been able to return and have thus been excluded from the political process.<ref>{{cite book |first=Milica |last=Zarkovic Bookman |year=1997 |title=The Demographic Struggle for Power: The Political Economy of Demographic Engineering in the Modern World |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-7146-4732-6}}</ref>

Abkhazian officials have stated that they have given the Russian Federation the responsibility of representing their interests abroad.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4635843.ece |title=Kremlin announces that South Ossetia will join "one united Russian state" |work=[[The Times|Times Online]] |date=30 August 2008 |access-date=3 September 2008 |location=London |first=Tony |last=Halpin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080903215639/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4635843.ece |archive-date=3 September 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Russia has a major military and economic presence in Abkhazia, and the relationship between the two has been described as asymmetrical, with Abkhazia being heavily dependent on Russia. Half of Abkhazia's budget comes from Russian funding, much of its state structure is integrated with Russia, it uses the [[Russian ruble]], its foreign policy is coordinated with Russia, and a majority of its citizens have Russian passports as a result of Russia's [[Passportization#Georgia|passportization]] policy.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Abkhazia: Deepening Dependence|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/caucasus/georgia/abkhazia-deepening-dependence|date=26 February 2010 |website=International Crisis Group}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tkemaladze |first=Tamar |date=14 February 2021 |title=Abkhazia Is Not Crimea but Everything Is Set to Become It |url=https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2021/02/14/abkhazia-is-not-crimea-but-everything-is-set-to-become-it/ |access-date=31 March 2022 |website=Modern Diplomacy |archive-date=28 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128003159/https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2021/02/14/abkhazia-is-not-crimea-but-everything-is-set-to-become-it/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to a 2010 study published by the [[University of Colorado Boulder]], the vast majority of Abkhazia's population supports independence, while a smaller number is in favour of joining the Russian Federation. Support for reunification with Georgia is very low.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/03/20/how-people-in-south-ossetia-abkhazia-and-transnistria-feel-about-annexation-by-russia/ |title=How people in South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria feel about annexation by Russia |author=Gerard Toal |date=20 March 2014 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=23 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701044838/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2014/03/20/how-people-in-south-ossetia-abkhazia-and-transnistria-feel-about-annexation-by-russia/ |archive-date=1 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Even among ethnic Georgians, nearly 50% prefer Abkhazia to remain an independent state and less than 20% of them believe returning to Georgia is necessary, as most of them have adjusted to the current situation. Among ethnic Abkhaz, explicit support for reunification with Georgia is around 1%; a similar figure can be found among ethnic Russians and Armenians as well.<ref>University of Colorado-Boulder, [http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pec/johno/pub/InsideAbkhazia.pdf Inside Abkhazia: A Survey of Attitudes in a De Facto State] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808045646/http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pec/johno/pub/InsideAbkhazia.pdf |date=8 August 2014 }}, p. 38</ref>

====Harmonization of laws with Russia====
In 2014, separatist Republic of Abkhazia and Russian Federation signed the "Treaty of Alliance and Strategic Partnership" with Russia. Based on this treaty, in November 2020, Abkhazia launched a program on the "formation of common social and economic space" with Russia to make Abkhaz laws and administrative measures more similar to Russian ones in social, economic, health and political spheres.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Moscow, Sokhumi Sign 'Common Social-Economic Space' Program, Tbilisi Decries|url=https://civil.ge/archives/384342 |date=2020-11-25 |website=[[Civil Georgia]] |language=en-US}}</ref> On 15 August 2024, the Russian Deputy Minister of Economic Development Dmitry Volvach said that the process of Abkhazia's [[Harmonisation of law|harmonization of its laws]] with Russia was "almost complete".<ref>{{Cite web |title= Russian Deputy Minister for Economic Development: "Harmonization of Legislation" Between Moscow and Occupied Abkhazia "Mostly Complete"|url=https://civil.ge/archives/620660|date=2020-08-15 |website=[[Civil Georgia]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia===
{{main|Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia}}
[[File:Government of Abkhazia.svg|thumb|Logo of the [[Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia]]]]
The Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia is the [[government in exile]] that Georgia recognises as the legal government of Abkhazia. This pro-Georgian government maintained a foothold on Abkhazian territory, in the upper [[Kodori Valley]] from July 2006 until it was forced out by fighting in August 2008. This government is also partly responsible for the affairs of some 250,000 [[Internally displaced persons|IDPs]], forced to leave Abkhazia following the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–93)|War in Abkhazia]] and [[Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia|ethnic cleansing]] that followed.<ref>Birgitte Refslund Sørensen, Marc Vincent (2001), ''Caught Between Borders: Response Strategies of the Internally Displaced'', pp. 234–5. Pluto Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7453-1818-9}}.</ref><ref>On Ruins of Empire: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Former Soviet Union Georgiy I. Mirsky, p. 72.</ref> The current Head of the Government is [[Vakhtang Kolbaia]].{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

During the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–93)|War in Abkhazia]], the Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia (at the time the Georgian faction of the "Council of Ministers of Abkhazia") left Abkhazia after the Abkhaz separatist forces took control of the region's capital [[Sukhumi]] and relocated to Georgia's capital [[Tbilisi]] where it operated as the Government of Abkhazia in exile for almost 13 years. During this period, the Government of Abkhazia in exile, led by [[Tamaz Nadareishvili]], was known for a hard-line stance towards the Abkhaz problem and frequently voiced their opinion that the solution to the conflict can be attained only through Georgia's military response to secessionism.<ref>{{cite web |title=The speech by Tamaz Nadareishvili, chairman of the Supreme Council of the Abkhazian Autonomous Republic, delivered at the session of Georgian Parliament |url=http://www.parliament.ge/GENERAL/HotPoints/ABKHAZIA/nadarei.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020310105503/http://www.parliament.ge/GENERAL/HotPoints/ABKHAZIA/nadarei.html |archive-date=10 March 2002 |quote=We see no perspective in arranging of Abkhazian conflict by political and peaceful means.}}</ref> Later, Nadareishvili's administration was implicated in some internal controversies and had not taken an active part in the politics of Abkhazia{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} until a new chairman, [[Irakli Alasania]], was appointed by [[President of Georgia]], [[Mikheil Saakashvili]], his envoy in the peace talks over Abkhazia.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

== Administrative divisions ==
{{main|Subdivisions of Abkhazia}}
[[File:Abkhazia districts map numbered.svg|thumb|1) [[Gagra District|Gagra]]
2) [[Gudauta District|Gudauta]]
3) [[Sukhumi District|Sukhumi]]
4) [[Gulripshi District|Gulripshi]]
5) [[Ochamchira District|Ochamchira]]
6) [[Tkvarcheli District|Tkvarcheli]]
7) [[Gali District, Abkhazia|Gali]]
]]
The Republic of Abkhazia is divided into seven [[raion]]s (districts) named after their primary cities: [[Gagra District|Gagra]], [[Gudauta District|Gudauta]], [[Sukhumi District|Sukhumi]], [[Ochamchira District|Ochamchira]], [[Gulripshi District|Gulripshi]], [[Tkvarcheli District|Tkvarcheli]] and [[Gali District, Abkhazia|Gali]]. These districts remain mostly unchanged since the break-up of the Soviet Union, with the exception of the [[Tkvarcheli District]], created in 1995 from parts of the Ochamchira and Gali districts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bringa |first1=Tone |last2=Toje |first2=Hege |title=Eurasian Borderlands: Spatializing Borders in the Aftermath of State Collapse |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-58309-3 |page=112}}</ref>

The President of the Republic appoints districts' heads from those elected to the districts' assemblies. There are elected village assemblies whose heads are appointed by the districts' heads.<ref name="Today"/>

The [[Administrative divisions of Georgia (country)|administrative subdivisions under Georgian law]] are identical to the ones outlined above, except for the new Tkvarcheli district.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}}

==Military==
{{main|Abkhazian Armed Forces|Abkhazian Air Force}}
The Abkhazian Armed Forces are the military of the Republic of Abkhazia. The basis of the Abkhazian armed forces was formed by the ethnically Abkhaz National Guard, which was established in early 1992. Most of their weapons come from the former Russian airborne division base in Gudauta.<ref name=Chervonnaia>Chervonnaia, Svetlana Mikhailovna. Conflict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia and the Russian Shadow. Gothic Image Publications, 1994</ref><ref name=WhiteBookOfAbkhazia>''White Book of Abkhazia. 1992–1993 Documents, Materials, Evidences''. Moscow, 1993.</ref> The Abkhazian military is primarily a ground force, but includes small sea and air units. Russia deploys its own military units as part of the [[7th Military Base]] in Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://de.rian.ru/postsowjetischen/20081030/118035800.html |title=Russland legitimiert Beziehungen zu Abchasien und Südossetien |publisher=De.rian.ru |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716054404/http://de.rian.ru/postsowjetischen/20081030/118035800.html |archive-date=16 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> These units are reportedly subordinate to the Russian [[49th Army]] and include both ground elements and air defence assets.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gfsis.org/maps/view/russian-military-forces |title=Russian Military Forces: Interactive Map |access-date=30 August 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215151446/https://www.gfsis.org/maps/view/russian-military-forces |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Abkhazian Armed Forces are composed of:
* The Abkhazian Land Forces with a permanent force of around 5,000, but with [[reservists]] and paramilitary personnel this may increase to up to 50,000 in times of military conflict. The exact numbers and the type of equipment used remain unverifiable.
* The Abkhazian Navy that consists of three divisions based in [[Sukhumi]], [[Ochamchire]] and [[Pitsunda]], but the Russian coast guard patrols their waters.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}
* The [[Abkhazian Air Force]], a small unit consisting of a few [[fighter aircraft]] and [[helicopters]].

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Abkhazia}}
The economy of Abkhazia is integrated with Russia as outlined in a bilateral agreement published in November 2014. The country uses the Russian [[ruble]] as its currency, and the two countries share a common economic and [[Eurasian Customs Union|customs union]].<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Putin Sparks Georgia Fury With 'Annexation' Deal in Abkhazia |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/putin-sparks-georgia-fury-with-annexation-deal-in-abkhazia/869407 |work=[[Outlook (Indian magazine)]] |location=New Delhi |date=25 November 2014 |access-date=10 September 2020 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303074810/https://www.outlookindia.com/newswire/story/putin-sparks-georgia-fury-with-annexation-deal-in-abkhazia/869407 |url-status=live }}</ref> Abkhazia has experienced a modest economic upswing since the [[2008 South Ossetia war]] and Russia's subsequent recognition of Abkhazia's independence. About half of Abkhazia's state budget is financed with aid money from Russia.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/no-clear-frontrunner-as-abkhazia-goes-to-poll/442702.html |title=No Clear Frontrunner as Abkhazia Goes to Poll |author=Nikolaus von Twickel |work=The Moscow Times |date=26 August 2011 |access-date=26 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111221151310/http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/no-clear-frontrunner-as-abkhazia-goes-to-poll/442702.html |archive-date=21 December 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Tourism in Abkhazia|Tourism]] is a key industry and, according to Abkhazia's authorities, almost a million tourists (mainly from Russia) came to Abkhazia in 2007.<ref>[[Kommersant]]-Dengi, [http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1020594 Тяжелая экономическая независимость] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913001619/http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1020594 |date=13 September 2008 }} (''Hard Economical Independence''), 8 September 2008 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> Abkhazia exports wine and fruits, especially [[tangerine]]s and [[hazelnut]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Безграничная Абхазия Что получила республика от российского признания |url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2553872 |journal=Коммерсантъ |access-date=24 January 2021 |language=ru |date=8 September 2014 |archive-date=29 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220729233457/https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2553872 |url-status=live }}</ref> Electricity is largely supplied by the [[Inguri Dam|Inguri hydroelectric power station]] located on the Inguri River between Abkhazia and Georgia (proper) and operated jointly by both parties.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://jam-news.net/abkhazia-will-transfer-the-power-system-to-russia-to-save-itself-from-the-energy-crisis-news-mining-non-payment/ |title=Op-ed: Abkhazia will have to transfer its power system to Russia or live without electricity |last=Khashig |first=Inal |work=JAMnews |date=4 December 2020 |access-date=6 December 2020}}</ref>

[[File:2014 Gagra, Plaża (17).jpg|thumb|Beach in [[Gagra]] in May 2014]]
In the first half of 2012, the principal trading partners of Abkhazia were Russia (64%) and Turkey (18%).<ref name=apress6859>{{cite news |url=http://apsnypress.info/news/6859.html |script-title=ru:Основными торговыми партнерами Абхазии продолжают оставаться Россия и Турция |trans-title=Russia and Turkey continue to be Abkhazia's main trade partners |language=ru |website=Apsnypress.info |date=27 July 2012 |access-date=28 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202183029/http://apsnypress.info/news/6859.html |archive-date=2 February 2014}}</ref> The [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] economic sanctions imposed on Abkhazia in 1996 are still formally in force, but Russia announced on 6 March 2008 that it would no longer participate in them, declaring them "outdated, impeding the socio-economic development of the region, and causing unjustified hardship for the people of Abkhazia". Russia also called on other CIS members to undertake similar steps,<ref>{{cite press release |title=Russian Federation Withdraws from Regime of Restrictions Established in 1996 for Abkhazia |publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia]] |url=http://www.ln.mid.ru/Brp_4.nsf/arh/79C58F476CAEC4E8C32574040058934C?OpenDocument |type=Press release |date=6 March 2008 |access-date=6 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080901193119/http://www.ln.mid.ru/Brp_4.nsf/arh/79C58F476CAEC4E8C32574040058934C?OpenDocument |archive-date=1 September 2008}}</ref> but met with protests from Tbilisi and lack of support from the other CIS countries.<ref>{{cite news |first=Lyudmila |last=Alexandrova |url=http://www.itar-tass.com/eng/level2.html?NewsID=12565744 |title=Russia expands economic ties with Abkhazia, Georgia angry, CIS idle |newspaper=[[Itar-Tass]] |date=9 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510143133/http://www.itar-tass.com/eng/level2.html?NewsID=12565744 |archive-date=10 May 2008}}</ref>

Despite the controversial status of the territory and its damaged infrastructure, [[tourism in Abkhazia]] grew following the Russian recognition of Abkhazian independence in 2008 due to the arrival of Russian tourists. In 2009 the number of Russian tourists in Abkhazia increased by 20% and the total number of Russian tourists reached 1&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://abkhasia.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/165554/ |title=Кавказский Узел – В 2009 году туристический поток в Абхазии увеличился на 20% |work=Кавказский Узел |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122053801/http://abkhasia.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/165554/ |archive-date=22 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://chechnya.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/164334/ |title=Кавказский Узел – В 2009 году Абхазию посетило около миллиона туристов |work=Кавказский Узел |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122072059/http://chechnya.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/164334/ |archive-date=22 January 2015 }}</ref> After the tourist boom many Russian businesses began to invest money in Abkhazian tourist infrastructure. With the main highway of the country being rebuilt in 2014 many damaged hotels in Gagra are either being restored or demolished. In 2014, 1.16&nbsp;million Russian tourists visited Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tourbus.ru/news/8118.html |title=Ростуризм увеличил туристические показатели сразу в несколько раз |work=tourbus.ru |access-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122061220/http://tourbus.ru/news/8118.html |archive-date=22 January 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Abkhazia}}
According to the last census in 2011 Abkhazia had 240,705 inhabitants.<ref name=apsnycensus>{{cite news |url=http://apsnypress.info/news/5084.html |script-title=ru:Численность населения Абхазии составляет 240 705 человек |trans-title=The population of Abkhazia is 240,705 people |language=ru |date=28 December 2011 |website=Apsnypress.info |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209185131/http://apsnypress.info/news/5084.html |archive-date=9 February 2012}}</ref> The Department of Statistics of Georgia estimated Abkhazia's population to be approximately 179,000 in 2003, and 178,000 in 2005 (the last year when such estimates were published in Georgia).<ref name=yb2005>''Statistical Yearbook of Georgia 2005'': Population, Table 2.1, p. 33, Department for Statistics, Tbilisi (2005)</ref><!--THIS LINK IS NOW DEAD: [http://www.statistics.ge/Main/Yearbook/2005/05Population_05.doc Statistical Yearbook of Georgia, 2005: Population] (607kb, ''[[Microsoft Word|Microsoft Word document]]''). The State Department of Statistics of Georgia. Retrieved on 30 April 2007.--> ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' estimates the population in 2007 at 180,000<ref name="britannica"/> and the [[International Crisis Group]] estimated Abkhazia's total population in 2006 to be between 157,000 and 190,000 (or between 180,000 and 220,000 as estimated by [[UNDP]] in 1998).<ref name="Today_third">[https://www.crisisgroup.org/global/abkhazia-today Abkhazia Today.] ''The [[International Crisis Group]] Europe Report N°176, 15 September 2006'', page 9. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510033711/http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?l=1&id=4377 |date=10 May 2007 }}</ref>

===Ethnicity===
The ethnic composition of Abkhazia has played a central role in the [[Georgian-Abkhazian conflict]]. The [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|1992–1993 war with Georgia]] resulted in the expulsion and flight of over half of the republic's population, which had numbered 525,061 in the 1989 census.<ref name=censuses2/> The population of Abkhazia remains ethnically very diverse, even after the 1992–1993 war. At present the population of Abkhazia is mainly made up of ethnic [[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]] (50.7% according to the 2011 census), [[Russians]], [[Armenians in Abkhazia|Armenians]], [[Georgians]] (mostly [[Mingrelians]]), and [[Greeks]].<ref name=apsnycensus/> Other ethnicities include [[Ukrainians]], [[Belarusians]], [[Ossetians]], [[Tatars]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Romani people|Roma]] and [[Estonians in Abkhazia|Estonians]].<ref name="Gogia2011">{{cite book |last=Gogia |first=Giorgi |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf |title=Georgia/Abkhazia: Living in Limbo – The Rights of Ethnic Georgian Returnees to the Gali District of Abkhazia |publisher=Human Rights Watch |location=New York, NY |year=2011 |access-date=29 November 2016 |isbn=978-1-56432-790-1 |page=9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017202339/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/georgia0711LR.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Greeks constituted a significant minority in the area in the early 1920s (50,000), and remained a major ethnic group until 1945, when they were deported to Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eek.gr/default.asp?pid=6&id=579 |title=ΕΕΚ |date=18 December 2008 |access-date=15 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218130517/http://www.eek.gr/default.asp?pid=6&id=579 |archive-date=18 December 2008}}</ref> Under the Soviet Union, the Russian, Armenian, and Georgian populations grew faster than the Abkhaz population, due to large-scale enforced migration, especially under the rule of [[Joseph Stalin]] and [[Lavrenty Beria]].<ref name=jrl>{{cite journal |url=http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/8226.cfm |editor-first=Stephen D. |editor-last=Shenfield |title=Special Issue; The Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict: Past, Present, Future |journal=JRL Research & Analytical Supplement ~ JRL 8226 |publisher=Cdi.org |date=May 2004 |issue=24 |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706111108/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/8226.cfm |archive-date=6 July 2010}}</ref>

At the time of the 1989 census, Abkhazia's Georgian population numbered 239,872, forming around 45.7% of the population, and the Armenian population was 77,000.<ref name=censuses2/><ref name="Numbers2011">{{cite web |url=https://1drv.ms/b/s!AklmesgT05Ojg1dboN8APR-WneLo |title=Abkhazia in numbers 2011 |date=2011 |access-date=22 June 2016}} {{Dead link|date=June 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Due to [[ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia|ethnic cleansing]] and displacement due to people fleeing the 1992–1993 war, the Georgian population, and to a lesser extent the Russian and Armenian populations, has greatly declined.<ref name="britannica">"Abkhazia." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1358/Abkhazia Encyclopædia Britannica Online] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910230908/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1358/Abkhazia |date=10 September 2008 }} 9 September 2008.</ref> In 2003 Armenians formed the second-largest minority group in Abkhazia (closely matching the Georgians), numbering 44,869.<ref name=censuses2/> By the time of the 2011 census, [[Georgians]] formed the second-largest minority group with a population of 46,455.<ref name="Numbers2011"/> Despite the official numbers, unofficial sources estimate that the Abkhaz and Armenian communities are roughly equal in number.<ref name="oD">{{Cite web |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/islam-tekushev/unlikely-home |title=An unlikely home |author=Islam Tekushev |publisher=[[openDemocracy]] |date=5 January 2016 |access-date=22 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920130336/https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/islam-tekushev/unlikely-home |archive-date=20 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the wake of the [[Syrian civil war]] Abkhazia granted refugee status to a few hundred Syrians with Abkhaz, [[Abazin]] and [[Circassians|Circassian]] ancestry.<ref name="oD"/> Facing a growing Armenian community, this move has been linked with the wish of the ruling Abkhaz —who have often been in the minority on their territory— to tilt the demographic balance in favour of the titular nation.<ref name="oD"/>

===Diaspora===
Thousands of Abkhaz, known as [[Ethnic Cleansing of Circassians|''muhajirun'']], were exiled to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the mid-19th century after resisting the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] conquest of the Caucasus. Today, Turkey is home to the world's largest Abkhaz diaspora community. Size estimates vary – diaspora leaders say 1&nbsp;million people; Abkhaz estimates range from 150,000 to 500,000.<ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav030909b.shtml Abkhazia's Diaspora: Dreaming of Home] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017195434/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav030909b.shtml |date=17 October 2017 }}. Eurasianet.org (8 March 2009). Retrieved on 30 May 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=circassians-demand-rights-2011-04-18 Circassians in Turkey rally for their rights] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111014073254/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=circassians-demand-rights-2011-04-18 |date=14 October 2011 }}. Hurriyetdailynews.com. Retrieved on 30 May 2011.</ref>

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Abkhazia}}
{{bar box |float=right
|title=Religion in Abkhazia (2003)<ref name=portal-credo/>
|left1=Religion |right1=Percent
|bars =
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|DodgerBlue|60}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|LimeGreen|16}}
{{bar percent|[[Abkhaz Native Religion]]|Red|8}}
{{bar percent|Other religions|DarkKhaki|2}}
{{bar percent|[[Irreligion|Irreligious]] or [[atheism|atheist]]|Silver|8}}
{{bar percent|Undetermined|DarkGray|6}}
}}
[[File:2014 Nowy Aton, Widok ze szczytu Góry Iwerskiej (02).jpg|thumb|[[New Athos]] monastery in Abkhazia]]
A majority of inhabitants of Abkhazia are Christian ([[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] (see also: [[Abkhazian Orthodox Church]]) and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]]) while a significant minority are [[Sunni Muslim]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Abkhazians: a handbook |last=Hewitt |first=George |year=1998 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-21975-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/abkhazianshandbo00geor/page/205 205] |url=https://archive.org/details/abkhazianshandbo00geor/page/205}}</ref> The [[Abkhaz Native Religion]] has undergone a strong revival in recent decades.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.russiaotherpointsofview.com/2010/03/abkhazia.html |title=Russia: Other Points of View: ABKHAZIA versus GEORGIA: Implications for U.S. Policy toward Russia |publisher=Russiaotherpointsofview.com |date=30 March 2010 |access-date=25 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223093635/http://www.russiaotherpointsofview.com/2010/03/abkhazia.html |archive-date=23 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> There is a very small number of adherents of Judaism, [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[new religious movement]]s.<ref name=portal-credo>[http://www.portal-credo.ru/site/print.php?act=fresh&id=188 Александр Крылов. ЕДИНАЯ ВЕРА АБХАЗСКИХ "ХРИСТИАН" И "МУСУЛЬМАН". Особенности религиозного сознания в современной Абхазии] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927200524/http://www.portal-credo.ru/site/print.php?act=fresh&id=188 |date=27 September 2007 }}. Portal-credo.ru (17 March 2004). Retrieved on 30 May 2011.</ref> The Jehovah's Witnesses organisation has officially been banned since 1995, though the decree is not currently enforced.<ref name="state">[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51553.htm Georgia: International Religious Freedom Report 2005.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210142351/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51553.htm |date=10 December 2019 }} The United States [[Department of State]]. Retrieved 24 May 2007.</ref>

According to the constitutions of both Abkhazia and Georgia, the adherents of all religions have equal rights before the law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dp.abhazia.com/konstitut.html |script-title=ru:Конституция Республики Абхазия: Глава 2 Права и свободы человека и Гражданина: Статья 12 |trans-title=Constitution of the Republic of Abkhazia: Chapter 2 Rights and freedoms of the person and citizen: Article 12 |publisher=dp.abhazia.com |date=26 November 1994 |language=ru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011511/http://dp.abhazia.com/konstitut.html |archive-date=28 September 2007}}</ref>

According to a survey held in 2003, 60% of respondents identified themselves as Christian, 16% as Muslim, 8% as atheist or irreligious, 8% as adhering to the traditional Abkhazian religion or as Pagan, 2% as follower of other religions and 6% as undecided.<ref name=portal-credo/>

=== Language ===
Article 6 of the Constitution of Abkhazia states:
<blockquote>The official language of the Republic of Abkhazia shall be the Abkhazian language. The Russian language, equally with the Abkhazian language, shall be recognized as a language of State and other institutions. The State shall guarantee the right to freely use the mother language for all the ethnic groups residing in Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Constitution of Abkhazia |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Abkhazia#Article_6 |website=Wikisource |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171017014008/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Abkhazia#Article_6 |archive-date=17 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref></blockquote>

The languages spoken in Abkhazia are [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Armenian (language)|Armenian]], and [[Greek (language)|Greek]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Nation Profile; Abkhazia |url=http://www.nationalia.info/profile/1/abkhazia |website=Nationalia |publisher=Ceimen: Centre Internationale Escarré per a les Minories Étniques i les Nacions |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016223549/https://www.nationalia.info/profile/1/abkhazia |archive-date=16 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Autonomous Republic passed a law in 2007 defining the Abkhaz language as the only state language of Abkhazia.<ref name="OBC transeuropa">{{cite news |last1=Comai |first1=Giorgio |title=In Abkhazia, worried about the language law |url=https://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Abkhazia/In-Abkhazia-worried-about-the-language-law-124824 |access-date=25 July 2017 |publisher=Osservatorio Balcani e Caucaso Transeuropa |date=11 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016223546/https://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Abkhazia/In-Abkhazia-worried-about-the-language-law-124824 |archive-date=16 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> As such, Abkhaz is the required language for legislative and executive council debates (with translation from and to Russian) and at least half of the text of all magazines and newspapers must be in Abkhaz.<ref name="OBC transeuropa"/>

Despite the official status of Abkhaz, the dominance of other languages within Abkhazia, especially Russian, is so great that experts called it an "[[endangered language]]" in 2004.<ref name="Hewitt">{{Citation |last=Hewitt |first=George |contribution=State and Language |title=Abkhazia in the Context of Contemporary International Relations |date=29 June – 1 July 2004 |location=[[Pitsunda]], The Republic of Abkhazia |contribution-url=https://aheku.net/articles/english/abkhazia/1288?pg=1 |access-date=25 July 2017 |archive-date=5 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205052844/https://aheku.net/articles/english/abkhazia/1288?pg=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> During the Soviet era, language instruction would begin in schools in Abkhaz, only to switch to Russian for the majority of required schooling.<ref name="Hewitt"/> The government of the Republic is attempting to institute Abkhaz-only primary education but there has been limited success due to a lack of facilities and educational materials.<ref name="OBC transeuropa"/> The primary schools in Georgian-speaking areas switched from Georgian to Russian in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mateu |first1=Sandra Veloy |title=Language policy in Abkhazia: promoting Abkhazian or forgetting Georgian? |url=http://www.nationalia.info/new/10844/language-policy-in-abkhazia-promoting-abkhazian-or-forgetting-georgian |website=Nationalia |access-date=25 July 2017 |date=16 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925132001/https://www.nationalia.info/new/10844/language-policy-in-abkhazia-promoting-abkhazian-or-forgetting-georgian |archive-date=25 September 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Nationality issues===
====Adoption of Russian nationality====
[[File:2014 Suchum, Rosyjski Teatr Dramatyczny.jpg|thumb|Russian Drama Theatre, Sukhumi]]
After the break-up of the Soviet Union, many Abkhazians kept their [[Soviet passport]]s, even after a decade, and used them to eventually apply for Russian citizenship.<ref name="Soviet Abkhazians">{{cite web |publisher=Institute for War & Peace Reporting |author=Inal Khashig |url=http://iwpr.net/report-news/abkhaz-rush-russian-passports |title=Abkhaz Rush For Russian Passports |date=27 June 2002 |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222164131/http://iwpr.net/report-news/abkhaz-rush-russian-passports |archive-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Before 2002, Russian law allowed residents of former Soviet Union to apply for citizenship if they had not become citizens of their newly independent states. The procedure was extremely complex. The new [[citizenship of Russia|citizenship law of Russia]] adopted on 31 May 2002 introduced a simplified procedure of citizenship acquisition for former citizens of the Soviet Union regardless of their place of residence. In Abkhazia and South Ossetia, the application process was simplified even further, and people could apply even without leaving their homes. Russian non-governmental organisations with close ties to Russian officialdom simply took their papers to a nearby Russian city for processing.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/law/help/russian-georgia-war.php |title=Russian Federation: Legal Aspects of War in Georgia |publisher=Library of Congress |date=September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716042951/http://www.loc.gov/law/help/russian-georgia-war.php |archive-date=16 July 2014}}</ref>

Abkhazians began mass acquisition of Russian passports in 2002. It is reported that the public organisation the Congress of Russian Communities of Abkhazia started collecting Abkhazians' Soviet-era travel documents. It then sent them to a consular department specially set up by [[Russian Foreign Ministry]] officials in the city of [[Sochi]]. After they were checked, Abkhazian applicants were granted Russian citizenship. By 25 June 2002, an estimated 150,000 people in Abkhazia had acquired the new passports, joining 50,000 who already possessed Russian citizenship. The Sukhum authorities, although officially not involved in the registration for Russian nationality process, openly encouraged it. Government officials said privately that President Putin's administration agreed with the passport acquisition during Abkhazia's prime minister [[Anri Jergenia|Djergenia]]'s visit to Moscow in May 2002.<ref name="Soviet Abkhazians"/>

The ''"passportisation"'' caused outrage in Tbilisi, worsening its already shaky relations with Russia. The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia|Georgian Foreign Ministry]] issued a statement insisting that Abkhazians were citizens of Georgia and calling the passport allocation an
"unprecedented illegal campaign". President [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] said that he would be asking his Russian counterpart, [[Vladimir Putin]], for an explanation. The speaker of parliament [[Nino Burjanadze]] said that she would raise the matter at the forthcoming OSCE parliamentary assembly.<ref name="Soviet Abkhazians"/>

1 February 2011 was the last day in the post-Soviet era when a passport of [[USSR]] was valid for crossing the Russian-Abkhaz border. According to the staff of Abkhazia's passport and visa service, there were about two to three thousand mostly elderly people left with Soviet passports who had no chance of acquiring new documents. These people were not able to get Russian citizenship. But they can first get an internal Abkhaz passport and then a travelling passport to visit Russia.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=GeorgiaTimes |author=Anton Krivenuk |url=http://www.georgiatimes.info/en/analysis/50360.html |title=Abkhaz Rush For Russian Passports |date=1 February 2011 |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222032955/http://www.georgiatimes.info/en/analysis/50360.html |archive-date=22 February 2014 }}</ref>

====Issue of ethnic Georgians====
In 2005, citing the need to integrate ethnic Georgian residents of eastern districts of Abkhazia, the then leadership of Abkhazia showed signs of a softening stance towards granting of citizenship to the residents of Gali, Ochamchire and Tkvarcheli districts.<ref name="Abkhaz Parliament">{{cite web |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=26487 |title=Abkhaz Decision on Passports Leaves Many Georgians in Gali Worried |publisher=Civil.ge |author=Olesya Vartanyan |date=24 September 2013 |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222144642/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=26487 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the Abkhazian law on citizenship, [[Abkhaz people|ethnic Abkhazians]], regardless of place of residence, can become Abkhaz citizens. Those who are not ethnic Abkhazians are eligible for citizenship if they lived in Abkhazia for at least five years prior to the adoption of the act of independence in October 1999. This provision aimed at creating a legal hurdle in obtaining Abkhaz passports for those ethnic Georgians who fled Abkhazia as a result of 1992–1993 armed conflict and who then returned to the Gali district. Abkhazian legislation forbids citizens of Abkhazia from holding [[dual citizenship]] with any other state apart from Russia.<ref name="Abkhaz Opposition">{{cite web |url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=26053 |title=Sokhumi Suspends Issuing Abkhaz Passports to Ethnic Georgians |publisher=Civil.ge |date=14 May 2013 |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222144640/http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=26053 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Ethnic Georgians who have returned to the Gali district and want to obtain Abkhaz passports, according to Abkhazian law, should undergo lengthy procedures which also include a requirement to submit documented proof that they renounced their Georgian citizenship.<ref name="Abkhaz Opposition"/> President Bagapsh was inclined to regard Georgians in Gali as "Georgianised Abkhazians." According to Bagapsh, these were actually ethnic Abkhaz people who were "Georgianised" during the long process of the Georgianisation of Abkhazia that culminated during the rule of Joseph Stalin and Lavrenti Beria. So in his official speeches, Bagapsh often added the Gali Georgians to population estimates of the Abkhaz, disregarding the fact that they still thought of themselves as ethnic Georgians rather than Abkhaz.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/524e99f14.html |title=Authorities in Abkhazia Plan to Strip Georgians of Citizenship |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |author=Giorgi Menabde |date=3 October 2013 |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222002138/http://www.refworld.org/docid/524e99f14.html |archive-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In early 2013 the process of passportisation of ethnic Georgians came under the scrutiny of Abkhaz opposition groups who turned this issue into one of the central topics of the breakaway region's internal politics, and issuing of passports was suspended in May. Opposition claimed that "massive" passportisation involving granting citizenship to ethnic Georgians in eastern districts was fraught with risk of "losing sovereignty and territorial integrity." According to Apsnypress, [[Stanislav Lakoba]], secretary of Abkhaz security council, said that "We are facing the process of the total Georgianization of Abkhazia."<ref name="Abkhaz Opposition"/>

Pressures have been placed upon teachers in areas of Abkhazia which retain large Georgian populations to abandon the use of the [[Georgian language]] in education and adopt Russian textbooks.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rferl.org/content/Teachers_In_Abkhazias_Gali_District_Under_Pressure_To_Give_Up_Georgian_Language/1514767.html |title=Teachers in Abkhazia's Gali District Under Pressure To Give Up Georgian Language |author=Eka Kevanishvili |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe]] |date=22 March 2009 |access-date=11 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915121431/http://www.rferl.org/content/Teachers_In_Abkhazias_Gali_District_Under_Pressure_To_Give_Up_Georgian_Language/1514767.html |archive-date=15 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://abkhazeti.info/abkhazia/2013/1377048996.php |title=Сухуми требует от директоров грузинских школ перехода на русскоязычное обучение |access-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221220030/http://abkhazeti.info/abkhazia/2013/1377048996.php |archive-date=21 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Abkhazia/In-Abkhazia-worried-about-the-language-law-124824 |title=In Abkhazia, worried about the language law |author=Giorgio Comai |publisher=Osservatorio balconie caucaso |date=6 November 2012 |access-date=11 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810033550/http://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Abkhazia/In-Abkhazia-worried-about-the-language-law-124824 |archive-date=10 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

On 18 September 2013, the Parliament of Republic of Abkhazia adopted a resolution instructing the prosecutor's office to carry out a "sweeping" probe into passport offices of the interior ministry and where wrongdoings were found in the distribution of passports to refer those violations to the Ministry of Internal Affairs for "annulment of illegally issued passports." Abkhaz officials announced that a significant number of residents of Gali, Ochamchire and Tkvarcheli districts received Abkhaz passports while at the same time retaining their Georgian citizenship, which constituted a "violation of the law on Abkhaz citizenship". According to the Abkhaz officials, more than 26,000 passports were distributed in Gali, Tkvarcheli and Ochamchire districts, including about 23,000 of which were given out since Russian recognition of Abkhazia's independence in August 2008. These political debates have caused concerns in the ethnic Georgian population of Abkhazia, who reside mainly in Gali district, that they would be stripped of Abkhazian citizenship and thus forced to leave Abkhazia again.<ref name="Abkhaz Parliament"/>

In October 2013 Alexander Ankvab signed a document ordering the firing of Stanislav Lakoba. The document did not state any reason for the decision but Lakoba saw it as related to his political position on granting citizenship to Georgians living in Gali. Lakoba claimed that, according to data from the Abkhaz Security Council, 129 local people in Gali fought against Abkhazia. Local political parties and the coordination council of civil organisations expressed concern about Lakoba's dismissal. They claimed that, by dismissing him, the president "made an illegal process legal" – giving Abkhazian passports to Georgian citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dfwatch.net/top-abkhazian-security-official-dismissed-25881 |title=Top Abkhazian security official dismissed |publisher=DFWATCH STAFF |date=30 October 2013 |access-date=14 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222174817/http://dfwatch.net/top-abkhazian-security-official-dismissed-25881 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Education===
Until the 19th century, young people from Abkhazia usually received their education mainly at religious schools (Muslims at madrasas and Christians at seminaries), although a small number of children from wealthy families had opportunity to travel to foreign countries for education. The first modern educational institutions (both schools and colleges) in Abkhazia were established in the late 19th-early 20th centuries and rapidly grew until the second half of the 20th century. By the middle of the 20th century, Sukhumi had become a home for large educational institutions (both higher education institutions and technical vocational education and training (TVET) colleges) and largest students' community in Abkhazia. For example, the number of college students grew from few dozens in the 1920s to several thousands in the 1980s.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

According to the official statistical data, Abkhazia has 12 TVET colleges (as of 2019, est.) providing education and vocational training to youth mostly in the capital city, though there are several colleges in all major district centers.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://ugsra.org/ofitsialnaya-statistika.php?ELEMENT_ID=409 |title=Государственный комитет Республики Абхазия по статистике |website=ugsra.org |access-date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806133545/https://ugsra.org/ofitsialnaya-statistika.php?ELEMENT_ID=409 }}</ref> Independent international assessments suggest that these colleges train in about 20 different specialties attracting between 1000 and 1300 young people annually (aged between 16 and 29) (as of 2019, est.).{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} The largest colleges are as follows:{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

* [[Abkhazian State University|Abkhaz State University]] (1979), has its own campus which is a home for 42 departments organised into 8 faculties providing education to about 3300 students (as of 2019, est.).<ref name=":1"/>
* Abkhaz Multiindustrial College (1959) (from 1959 to 1999 – Sukhumi Trade and Culinary School),
* Sukhumi State College (1904) (from 1904 to 1921 – Sukhumi Real School; from 1921 to 1999 – Sukhumi Industrial Technical School),
* Sukhumi Art College (1935)
* Sukhum Medical College (1931)

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Abkhazia}}
The apsuara, the Abkhaz code of honor, is very stringent regarding hospitality. One of its principles is to respect guests even if they have committed crimes against the host.<ref name="Olympics" />

The written [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] literature appeared relatively recently, in the beginning of the 20th century. However, Abkhaz share the [[Nart saga]]s, a series of tales about mythical heroes, with other Caucasian peoples. The [[Abkhaz alphabet]] was created in the 19th century. The first newspaper in Abkhaz, called ''Abkhazia'' and edited by [[Dmitry Gulia]], appeared in 1917.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Бгажба |first1=Х. С. |last2=Зелинский |first2=К. Л. |title=Дмитрий Гулиа Критико-биографический очерк |date=1965 |publisher=Алашара |location=Сухуми |pages=57–58 |language=ru}}</ref>

Arguably the most famous Abkhaz writers are [[Fazil Iskander]], who wrote mostly in Russian, and [[Bagrat Shinkuba]], a poet and writer.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Derluguian |first1=Georgi M. |title=Bourdieu's Secret Admirer in the Caucasus: A World-System Biography |date=2005 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-14282-1 |page=99}}: Iskander is named while only Shinkuba's work ("popular novels about the fate of muhajeers") is mentioned; in the Russian translation ({{cite book |title=Адепт Бурдье на Кавказе: Эскизы к биографии в миросистемной перспективе |date=2017 |publisher=Litres |isbn=978-5-457-06529-1}}) Shinkuba is also explicitly named</ref>

===Media===
{{main|Media of Abkhazia}}

==Sports==
[[File:DaurAhvledianiStadium - 13.07.2013.JPG|thumb|[[Daur Akhvlediani Stadium]], Gagra]]
[[Association football|Football]] remains the most popular [[sport in Abkhazia]]. Other popular sports include basketball, boxing and wrestling.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}} The National Basketball Team of Abkhazia played its first game with the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Basketball team on 27 May 2015, which Abkhaz team won by 76–59.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://altinpost.org/haber-arsivi/item/2699-abhazya-milli-tak%C4%B1m%C4%B1-kktc-de-basketbol-turnuvas%C4%B1-nda.html |title=Altınpost – Abhazya Haberleri – Abhazya Basketbol Milli Takımı KKTC Milli Takımını 76-59 Yendi |website=altinpost.org |access-date=4 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205194623/http://altinpost.org/haber-arsivi/item/2699-abhazya-milli-tak%C4%B1m%C4%B1-kktc-de-basketbol-turnuvas%C4%B1-nda.html |archive-date=5 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Abkhaz basketball team "Apsny" also plays in the Russian Basketball League's Third-Tier in Krasnodar Krai.
Abkhazia has had its own amateur football league called the [[Abkhazian Premier League]], but it has no international football union membership.{{Citation needed|date=June 2016}} In total, there are nineteen Abkhazian Football Clubs across the two leagues. In 2016 it hosted and won the [[ConIFA World Football Cup]].<ref>{{cite news |title=A World Cup for unrecognised states |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-36429207 |author=Rayhan Demytrie |work=BBC News |date=2 June 2016 |access-date=16 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605134341/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-36429207 |archive-date=5 June 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21700177-football-championship-unrecognised-regions-and-stateless-peoples-won-abkhazia-world |title=A World Cup for countries that are not actually countries |newspaper=The Economist |date=6 June 2016 |access-date=16 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713113550/http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21700177-football-championship-unrecognised-regions-and-stateless-peoples-won-abkhazia-world |archive-date=13 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the early 2000s, tennis has become increasingly popular among school age children in Abkhazia. Several tennis players from Sukhumi participated as the national competitions in Russia and played at major international competitions under the Russian flag. For example, tennis player Alen Avidzba participated at the Davis Cup in 2016<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apsadgil.info/news/sport/alen-avidzba-provel-master-klass-dlya-yunykh-tennisistov-a-ego-trenery-provedut-dlya-nikh-trenirovki/ |title=Ален Авидзба провел мастер-класс для юных теннисистов, а его тренеры проведут для них тренировки |access-date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815142532/https://apsadgil.info/news/sport/alen-avidzba-provel-master-klass-dlya-yunykh-tennisistov-a-ego-trenery-provedut-dlya-nikh-trenirovki/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and Amina Anshba won a silver medal at an international tournament in Turkey in 2017.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} In fact, according to the official information from the Tennis portal.ru the highest career achievement of Amina Anshba was 278th place in the ranking among women in 2021<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://tennisportal.ru/tennisist/anshba_amina |title=Амина Аншба / Anshba, Amina - биография теннисистки, фото и видео - Теннис портал Tennisportal.ru |website=tennisportal.ru |access-date=20 December 2020 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326035748/http://tennisportal.ru/tennisist/anshba_amina |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wtatennis.com/players/321965/amina-anshba/rankings-history |title=Amina Anshba |publisher=World Tennis Association |access-date=30 April 2022 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211208063822/https://www.wtatennis.com/players/321965/amina-anshba/rankings-history |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Abkhazia|Georgia|Europe
}}
* [[Outline of Abkhazia]]
* [[Bibliography of Abkhazia]]
* [[Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations]]
* [[Land of Darkness]]
* [[South Ossetia]], another region of Georgia which is also a disputed territory
* [[List of states with limited recognition]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |last=de Waal |first=Thomas |title=The Caucasus: an Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kZ1oAgAAQBAJ |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-975043-6 }}
*{{cite book |last=Coene |first=Frederik |title=The Caucasus: an Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XuMAgAAQBAJ |publisher=Routledge |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-135-20302-3 }}
*{{cite book |last=Hille |first=Charlotte |title=State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxFP6K8iZzQC |publisher=Brill |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-17901-1 }}
*{{cite book |url=https://is.muni.cz/el/1423/podzim2012/MVZ208/um/35586974/Small_Nations_and_Great_Powers__A_Study_of_Ethnopolitical_Conflict_in_the_Caucasus__.pdf |title=Small Nations and Great Powers |last=Cornell |first=Svante E. |year=2001 | publisher=RoutledgeCurzon }}
*{{cite book |last=George |first=Julie A |title=The Politics of Ethnic Separatism in Russia and Georgia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ULFAAAAQBAJ |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-230-10232-3 }}

==Further reading==
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|title=Abasgia|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-4?rskey=LIcawH&result=1|first=Manana|last=Odisheli}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Abkhazia}}
* {{wikiatlas|Abkhazia}}
* {{in lang|en|ru|ka}} [http://presidentofabkhazia.org Официальный сайт Президента Республики Абхазия] (official webpage of the President of Abkhazia).
* {{in lang|en|ru|ab}} [http://mfaapsny.org/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Abkhazia] (official site).
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3261059.stm BBC Regions and territories: Abkhazia]
* {{in lang|ru}} [http://www.apsnypress.info State Information Agency of the Abkhaz Republic]
* [https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/georgia/ UN Documents for Georgia]
* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica|last1=Reza|first1=Enayatollah|last2=Qasemi|first2=Jawad|title=Abkhazia (Abkhāz)|year=2008|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/abkhazia-abkhaz-SIM_0083?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-islamica&s.q=Abkhaz}}

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